A Pilot Study of a Parent-Mediated, Web-Based Motor Skill Intervention for Children With Down Syndrome: Project SKIP

in Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly

Click name to view affiliation

Amanda Young Slippery Rock University
Texas Christian University

Search for other papers by Amanda Young in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Seán Healy University of Delaware

Search for other papers by Seán Healy in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Lisa Silliman-French Texas Woman’s University

Search for other papers by Lisa Silliman-French in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
, and
Ali Brian University of South Carolina

Search for other papers by Ali Brian in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2020-0171
Keywords:
adapted physical education; fundamental motor skills; gross motor skills; intellectual disability; remote learning
First Published Online:
31 May 2021
In Print:
Volume 38: Issue 3
Page Range:
452–473
Restricted access

To inform the development of scalable and sustainable fundamental motor skill interventions for children with Down syndrome, this study examined the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of Project Skill Intervention Implemented by Parents (Project SKIP), a web-based, parent-mediated intervention intended to improve ball skills among children with Down syndrome. Twenty-four families enrolled in the study (including 13 boys and 11 girls; Mage = 4.92). Fourteen children were assigned to an experimental group and participated in the 6-week intervention, and 10 children served as the inactive comparison group. The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 was administered preintervention and postintervention. In addition, parents of children in the experimental group completed a postintervention survey to assess their perceptions of Project SKIP. Following the intervention, there was a significant improvement in ball skills (p = .023, d = 0.86) for children in the experimental group, whereas the comparison group did not show significant improvement. Moreover, parents perceived Project SKIP to be feasible and effective; all parents reported being satisfied with their overall experience in the program, and 11 parents indicated that their child’s fundamental motor skills were positively influenced by the intervention. Engagement was high, with the majority of parents (n = 8, 57%) interacting with Project SKIP content three to four times a week.

Young is with the Dept. of Physical and Health Education, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA, USA; she was with Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA, at the time of data collection. Healy is with the Dept. of Behavioral Health and Nutrition, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA. Silliman-French is Faculty Emerita from the School of Health Promotion and Kinesiology, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, USA. Brian is with the Dept. of Physical Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA.

Young (amanda.young@sru.edu) is corresponding author.
  • Collapse
  • Expand

Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly

Cover Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly

  • Alesi, M., Battaglia, G., Pepi, A., Bianco, A., & Palma, A. (2018). Gross motor proficiency and intellectual functioning: A comparison among children with Down syndrome, children with borderline intellectual functioning, and typically developing children. Medicine, 97(41), e12737. PubMed ID: 30313077 https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000012737

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

  • Bandura, A. (1998). Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory. Psychology and Health, 13(4), 623–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870449808407422

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education and Behavior, 31(2), 143–164. PubMed ID: 15090118 https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198104263660

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barnett, L.M., Van Beurden, E., Morgan, P.J., Brooks, L.O., & Beard, J.R. (2009). Childhood motor skill proficiency as a predictor of adolescent physical activity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.07.004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Capio, C.M., Mak, T.C.T., Tse, M.A., & Masters, R.S.W. (2017). Fundamental movement skills and balance of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 62(3), 225–236. PubMed ID: 29205624 https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12458

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Capio C.M., & Rotor E.R. (2010). Fundamental movement skills among Filipino children with Down syndrome. Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness, 8, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1728-869X(10)60003-2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019a). Back to school planning: Checklists to guide parents, guardians and caregivers. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/parent-checklist.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019b). Data and statistics on Down syndrome. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/downsyndrome/data.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J., . . . Varley, J. (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: The early start Denver model. Pediatrics, 125(1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0958

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Favazza, P., Siperstein, G.N., Zeisel, S.A., Odom, S.L., Sideris, J.H., & Moskowitz, A.L. (2013). Young athletes program: Impact on motor development. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 30(3), 235–253. PubMed ID: 23860506 https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.30.3.235

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fidler, D.J. (2005). The emerging Down syndrome behavioral phenotype in early childhood: Implications for practice. Infants & Young Children, 18(2), 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200504000-00003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hartman, E., Houwen, S., Scherder, E., & Visscher, C. (2010). On the relationship between motor performance and executive functioning in children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(5), 468–477. PubMed ID: 20537052 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01284.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Healy, S., & Marchand, G. (2020). The feasibility of Project CHASE: A Facebook-delivered, parent-mediated physical activity intervention for children with Autism. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 67(2), 225–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2019.1597968

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Healy, S., Marchand, G., & Williams, E. (2018). “I’m not in this alone” the perspective of parents mediating a physical activity intervention for their children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 83, 160–167. PubMed ID: 30218986 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.08.014

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hertzog, M.A. (2008). Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies. Research in Nursing & Health, 31(2), 180–191. PubMed ID: 18183564 https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20247

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, N.E., & Tyson, D.F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740–763. PubMed ID: 19413429 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ingersoll, B., & Berger, N. (2015). Parent engagement with a telehealth-based parent-mediated intervention program for children with autism spectrum disorders: Predictors of program use and parent outcomes. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17, e227. PubMed ID: 26443557 https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.4913

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ingersoll, B., Wainer, A.L., Berger, N.I., Pickard, K.E., & Bonter, N. (2016). Comparison of a self-directed and therapist-assisted telehealth parent-mediated intervention for children with ASD: A pilot RCT. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 2275–2284. PubMed ID: 26922192 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2755-z

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jang, J., Dixon, D.R., Tarbox, J., Granpeesheh, D., Kornack, J., & de Nocker, Y. (2012). Randomized trial of an eLearning program for training family members of children with autism in the principles and procedures of applied behavior analysis. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 852–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.11.004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kazdin, A.E., Holland, L., & Crowley, M. (1997). Family experience of barriers to treatment and premature termination from child therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(3), 453. PubMed ID: 9170769 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.65.3.453

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kelly, L.E., Wessel, J.A., Dummer, G., & Sampson, T. (2010). Everyone CAN: Skill development and assessment in elementary physical education. Human Kinetics.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Khan, K., Hall, C.L., Davies, E.B., Hollis, C., & Glazebrook, C. (2019). The effectiveness of web-based interventions delivered to children and young people with neurodevelopmental disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21(11), e1347. https://doi.org/10.2196/13478

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, E.C., Whitehead, A.L., Jacques, R.M., & Julious, S.A. (2014). The statistical interpretation of pilot trials: Should significance thresholds be reconsidered? BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(1) 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-41

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Leon, A.C., Davis, L.L., & Kraemer, H.C. (2011). The role and interpretation of pilot studies in clinical research. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(5), 626–629. PubMed ID: 21035130 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.10.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewis-Beck, M., Bryman, A.E., & Liao, T.F. (2003). The Sage encyclopedia of social science research methods. Sage Publications.

  • Lucyshyn, J., Albin, R.W., Homer, R.H., Mann, J.C., Mann, J.A., & Wadsworth, G. (2007). Family implementation of positive behavior support for a child with Autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 131–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007070090030201

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Magistro, D., Piumatti, G., Carlevaro, F., Sherar, L.B., Esliger, D.W., Bardaglio, G., . . . Musella, G. (2018). Measurement invariance of TGMD-3 in children with and without mental and behavioral disorders. Psychological Assessment, 30(11), 1421. PubMed ID: 29792504 https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000587

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McConnell, D., Parakkal, M., Savage, A., & Rempel, G. (2015). Parent-mediated intervention adherence and adverse effects. Disability and Rehabilitation, 37(10), 864–872. PubMed ID: 25073583 https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2014.946157

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Myers, R.E., Karazsia, B.T., Kim, E., Jackman, M.M., McPherson, C.L., & Singh, N.N. (2018). A telehealth parent-mediated mindfulness-based health wellness intervention for adolescents and young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2(3), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-018-0060-x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • National Association for Physical Education (NASPE). (2002). Active start: A statement of physical activity guidelines for children birth to five years. AAHPERD Publications.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Newton, R.L., Jr., Marker, A.M., Allen, H.R., Machtmes, R., Han, H., Johnson, W.D., . . . Church, T.S. (2014). Parent-targeted mobile phone intervention to increase physical activity in sedentary children: Randomized pilot trial. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 2(4), e48. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.3420

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pajareya, K., & Nopmaneejumruslers, K. (2011). A pilot randomized controlled trial of DIR/Floortime™ parent training intervention for pre-school children with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 15(5), 563–77. PubMed ID: 21690083 https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361310386502

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Palisano, R.J., Walter, S.D., Russell, D.J., Rosenbaum, P.L., Gémus, M., Galuppi, B.E., & Cunningham, L. (2001). Gross motor function of children with Down syndrome: Creation of motor growth curves. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82, 494–500. PubMed ID: 11295010 https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.21956

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Parsons, D., Cordier, R., Vaz, S., & Lee, H.C. (2017). Parent-mediated intervention training delivered remotely for children with autism spectrum disorder living outside of urban areas: Systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(8), e198. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6651

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Patton, S., & Hutton, E. (2016). Parent’s perspectives on a collaborative approach to the application of the handwriting without tears program with children with down syndrome. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 63(4), 266–276. PubMed ID: 27412421 https://doi.org/10.1111/1440-1630.1230

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Riethmuller, A.M., Jones, R., & Okely, A. (2009). Efficacy of interventions to improve motor development in young children: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 124(4), e782–e792. PubMed ID: 19736263 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0333

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roberts, M.Y., & Kaiser, A.P. (2011). The effectiveness of parent-implemented language interventions: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Speech and Language Pathology, 20(3), 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0055)

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Robinson, L.E., Stodden, D.F., Barnett, L.M., Lopes, V.P., Logan, S.W., Rodrigues, L.P., & D’Hondt, E. (2015). Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Medicine, 45(9), 1273–1284. PubMed ID: 26201678 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schott N., & Holfelder B. (2015). Relationship between motor skill competency and executive function in children with Down’s syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59, 860–72. PubMed ID: 25688672 https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12189

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Share, J.B., & French, R.W. (1982). Motor development of Down syndrome children: Birth to six years.

  • Simons, J.& Eyitayo, G.B. (2016). Aspects of reliability and validity of the TGMD-3 in 7–10–year-old children with intellectual disability in Belgium. European Psychomotricity Journal, 8(1), 3–16. https://www.psychomotor.gr/images/journal/Volume8/first_issue/1-SIMONS_3_16.pdf

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (2000). Research on family engagement in preventive interventions: Toward improved use of scientific findings in primary prevention practice. Journal of Primary Prevention, 21(2), 267–284. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007039421026

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tetreault, S., Parrot, A., & Trahan, J. (2003). Home activity programs in families with children presenting with global developmental delays: Evaluation and parental perceptions. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 26(3), 165–173. PubMed ID: 14501567 https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mrr.00000088441.78481.56

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Trost, S.G., Sallis, J.F., Pate, R.R., Freedson, P.S., Taylor, W.C., & Dowda, M. (2003). Evaluating a model of parental influence on youth physical activity. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 25(4), 277–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-397(03)00217-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tudella, E., Pereira, K., Basso, R.P., & Savelsbergh, G.J. (2011). Description of the motor development of 3–12 month old infants with Down syndrome: The influence of the postural body position. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 1514–1520. PubMed ID: 21367575 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.046

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ulrich, D.A. (2000). Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). Pro-Ed.

  • Ulrich, D.A. (2019). Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3). Pro-Ed.

  • van Gameren-Oosterom, H.B., Fekkes, M., Buitendijk, S.E., Mohangoo, A.D., Bruil, J., & Van Wouwe, J.P. (2011). Development, problem behavior, and quality of life in a population based sample of eight-year-old children with Down syndrome. Public Library of Science One, 6(7), e21879. PubMed ID: 21814560 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021879

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Webster, E. K., & Ulrich, D. A. (2017). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third edition. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 5(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2016-0003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Winders, P. (2013). Gross motor skills in children with Down syndrome: A guide for parents and professionals (2nd ed.). Woodbine House.

  • Wójcicki, T.R., Grigsby-Toussaint, D., Hillman, C.H., Huhman, M., & McAuley, E. (2014). Promoting physical activity in low-active adolescents via Facebook: A pilot randomized controlled trial to test feasibility. JMIR Research Protocols, 3(4), e56. PubMed ID: 25357008 https://doi.org/10.2196/resprot.3013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Young, A., Silliman-French, L., Nichols, D., & Kyzar, K. (2020). Effect of adapted physical education and homework on gross motor development for young children with Down syndrome. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 55(2), 228–242. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1254215

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 3519 1217 43
Full Text Views 303 208 22
PDF Downloads 147 39 6