Black Lives Matter to the NBA: The Impact of Sport Fanship and Political Affiliation on the Perception of the NBA’s Racial Justice Initiatives During the 2020 Playoff Bubble

in International Journal of Sport Communication

Click name to view affiliation

Kenon A. BrownAlabama Program in Sports Communication, Department of Advertising and Public Relations, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

Search for other papers by Kenon A. Brown in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
*
,
Nicky LewisUniversity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

Search for other papers by Nicky Lewis in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Matthew BarnidgeUniversity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

Search for other papers by Matthew Barnidge in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
, and
Courtney D. BomanUniversity of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

Search for other papers by Courtney D. Boman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
Restricted access

The NBA’s (National Basketball Association’s) racial justice initiatives during the 2020 Playoff Bubble are considered an act of corporate social advocacy and provide an exemplary scenario to explore this intersection of sport and politics. Based on this observation, the purpose of this study was to explore how one’s level of identification with the NBA and his/her identification with a political party can impact one’s perception of the NBA’s racial justice initiatives. Specifically, the researchers wanted to determine if outrage toward the NBA and one’s perception of the NBA’s reputation is influenced more by one’s political identity or one’s fanship for the league. A survey was conducted using a national convenience sample of 518 participants recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk. Results showed that while both fanship and political identity had effects on one’s outrage toward the NBA and one’s perceived reputation of the NBA, the stronger factor differed between Democrats and Republicans.

Brown (brown@apr.ua.edu) is corresponding author.

  • Collapse
  • Expand
  • Achen, C.H., & Bartels, L.M. (2016). Democracy for realists: Why elections do not produce responsive government. Princeton University Press.

  • Asada, A., Inoue, Y., & Chang, Y. (2021). The effects of athlete activism on league credibility, event legacy, and event involvement: A crisis communication perspective. International Journal of Sport Communication, 14(4), 507529. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2021-0027

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Aschburner, S. (2020). Coronavirus pandemic causes NBA to suspend season after player tests positive. NBA.com. https://www.nba.com/news/coronavirus-pandemic-causes-nba-suspend-season.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bae, J., & Cameron, G.T. (2006). Conditioning effect of prior reputation on perception of corporate giving. Public Relations Review, 32(2), 144150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.02.007

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Beer, T. (2020, October 15). NBA rating drop not due to blowback over players’ activism, poll suggests. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/tommybeer/2020/10/15/nbas-ratings-drop-not-due-to-blowback-over-players-activism-poll-suggests/?sh=60fe0e1e6b31

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Boone, K. (2020, March 13). 2020 NCAA Tournament cancelled due to growing threat of coronavirus pandemic. CBS Sports. https://www.cbssports.com/college-basketball/news/2020-ncaa-tournament-canceled-due-to-growing-threat-of-coronavirus-pandemic/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Brewer, M.B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307324. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Brewer, M.B., & Brown, R.J. (1998). Intergroup relations. McGraw-Hill.

  • Brown, K., Adamson, A., & Park, B. (2020). Applying situational crisis communication theory to sports: Investigating the impact of athlete reputational crises on team perception. Journal of Global Sport Management, 5(2), 202222. https://doi.org/10.1080/24704067.2019.1604077

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Brown, K., Murphy, B., & Maxwell, L. (2018). Tried in the court of public opinion: Effects of involvement in criminal transgressions on athlete image. Communication and Sport, 6(3), 283307. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479517697426

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Browne, M., Singhvi, A., Reneau, N., & Jordan, D. (2020). How the police killed Breonna Taylor. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000007348445/breonna-taylor-death-cops.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Burke, P. (1980). The self: Measurement requirements from an interactionist perspective. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(1), 1830. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033745

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Butryn, T., Masucci, M., & Johnson, J. (2020). The show must go on: The strategy and spectacle of Dana White’s efforts to promote UFC 249 during the coronavirus pandemic. International Journal of Sport Communication, 13(3), 381390. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0240

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Chappell, B. (2021, April 6). MLB moves All-Star Game to Colorado amid uproar over Georgia voting law. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/04/06/984711881/mlb-moves-all-star-game-to-colorado-amid-uproar-over-georgia-voting-law

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Chiger, S. (2017, February 24). Marketers’ most wanted: Sports fans. Chief Marketer. https://www.chiefmarketer.com/marketers-most-wanted-sports-fans/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Chun, R. (2005). Corporate reputation: Meaning and measurement. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7(2), 91109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2005.00109.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thorne, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L.R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 366375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.366

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cloud, D.L. (2007). Corporate social responsibility as oxymoron. In S.K May, G. Cheney, & J. Roper (Eds.), The debate over corporate social responsibility (pp. 219231). Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cole, E. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014564

  • Conover, P.J. (1984). The influence of group identifications on political perception and evaluation. The Journal of Politics, 46(3), 760785. https://doi.org/10.2307/2130855

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Conover, P.J. (1988). The role of social groups in political thinking. British Journal of Political Science, 18(1), 5176. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400004956

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Coombs, W.T. (1995). Choosing the right words: The development of guidelines for the selection of the “appropriate” crisis response strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 8(4), 447476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318995008004003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Coombs, W.T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163176. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cottingham, M.D. (2012). Interaction ritual theory and sports fans: Emotion, symbols, and solidarity. Sociology of Sport Journal, 29(2), 168185. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.29.2.168

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dator, J. (2020). Kyrie Irving was completely right about the NBA Bubble. SB Nation. https://www.sbnation.com/nba/2020/8/27/21404052/kyrie-irving-nba-bubble-concerns-black-lives-matter

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Davidson, N., Du, J., & Giardina, M. (2020). Through the perilous fight: A case analysis of professional wrestling during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Sport Communication, 13(3), 465473. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2020-0224

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Davies, G., Chun, R., da Silva, R.V., & Roper, S. (2001). The personification metaphor as a measurement approach for corporate reputation. Corporate Reputation Review, 4(2), 113127. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1540137

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • De Bakker, F.G., Den Hond, F., King, B., & Weber, K. (2013). Social movements, civil society and corporations: Taking stock and looking ahead. Organization Studies, 34(5–6), 573593.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Devlin, N., & Devlin, M. (2020). It’s all about my “team”: What we can learn about politics from sports. U.S. Election Analysis 2020: Media, Votes and the Campaign. https://www.electionanalysis.ws/us/president2020/section-6-popular-culture-and-public-critique/its-all-about-my-team-what-we-can-learn-about-politics-from-sport/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dodd, M.D., & Supa, D.W. (2014). Conceptualizing and Measuring “Corporate Social Advocacy” Communication: Examining the Impact on Corporate Financial Performance. Public Relations Journal, 8(3), 223.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Drakulich, K., Wozniak, K.H., Hagan, J., & Johnson, D. (2020). Race and policing in the 2016 presidential election: Black lives matter, the police, and dog whistle politics. Criminology, 58(2), 370402. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12239

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Du, S., Bhattacharya, C.B., & Sen, S. (2010). Maximizing business returns to corporate social responsibility (CSR): The role of CSR communication. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1), 819. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00276.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dvir-Gvirsman, S. (2019). Political social identity and selective exposure. Media Psychology, 22(6), 867889. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2018.1554493

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Euronews (2020, August 27). NBA ‘like a political organisation’ claims Trump after players protest. https://www.euronews.com/2020/08/27/nba-like-a-political-organisation-claims-trump-after-players-protest

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Everett, S. (2018). Nike Ad Featuring Colin Kaepernick Sets Off Social Media Firestorm. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/setheverett/2018/09/05/nike-ad-featuring-colin-kaepernick-sets-off-social-media-firestorm/?sh=432f61195cac

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fausset, R. (2020). What we know about the shooting death of Ahmaud Arbery. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/article/ahmaud-arbery-shooting-georgia.html?auth=login-google

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Feldman, D. (2020). Adam Silver: No data “Black Lives Matter” on court hurt NBA ratings. NBC Sports. https://nba.nbcsports.com/2020/11/30/adam-silver-no-data-black-lives-matter-on-court-hurt-nba-ratings/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Feldman, P.M., Bahamonde, R.A., & Bellido, I.V. (2014). A new approach for measuring corporate reputation. Revista De Administração De Empresas, 54(1), 5366. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-759020140102

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Flanagan, D.J., & O’Shaughnessy, K.C. (2005). The effect of layoffs on firm reputation. Journal of Management, 31(3), 445463. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206304272186

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fombrun, C., Gardberg, N., & Sever, J. (2000). The reputation quotient: A multi-stakeholder measure of corporate reputation. Journal of Brand Management, 7, 241255.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fombrun, C.J., & van Riel, C.B.M. (1997). The reputational landscape. Corporate Reputation Review, 1(2), 513. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1540024

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Gibson, K. (2018). Colin Kaepernick is Nike’s $6 billion man. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/colin-kaepernick-nike-6-billion-man/?ftag=COS-05-10aaa0h&utm_campaign=trueAnthem%3A%2BTrending%2BContent&utm_content=5ba5c81b9ebbef0001d6be40&utm_medium=trueAnthem&utm_source=facebook

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Gladden, J.M., & Funk, D.C. (2001). Understanding brand loyalty in professional sport: Examining the link between brand associations and brand loyalty. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 3(1), 5481. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-03-01-2001-B006

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Golan, G.J., Waddell, T.F., & Barnidge, M. (2021). Competing identity cues in the hostile media phenomenon: Source, nationalism, and perceived bias in news coverage of foreign affairs. Mass Communication and Society, 24, 676700.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Greene, S. (2004). Social identity theory and party identification. Social Science Quarterly, 85(1), 136153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501010.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Haslam, S.A., Oakes, P.J., Reynolds, K.J., & Turner, J.C. (1999). Social identity salience and the emergence of stereotype consensus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(7), 809818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025007004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Heere, B., & James, J.D. (2007). Stepping outside the lines: Developing a multi-dimensional team identity scale based on social identity theory. Sport Management Review, 10(1), 6591. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(07)70004-9

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Hill, E., Tiefenthaler, A., Trievert, C. Jordan, D., Willis, H., & Stein, R. (2020). How George Floyd was killed in police custody. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Hill, J.S., & Vincent, J. (2006). Globalisation and sports branding: The case of Manchester United. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 7(3), 6178. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-07-03-2006-B008

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Hirt, E.R., Zillmann, D., Erickson, G.A., & Kennedy, C. (1992). Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans’ self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(5), 724738. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.5.724

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ho, H.C., & Yeung, D.Y. (2019). Effects of social identity salience on motivational orientation and conflict strategies in intergenerational conflict. International Journal of Psychology, 54(1), 108116. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12435

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Hogg, M.A. (2006). Social identity theory. In P.J. Burke (Ed.), Contemporary social psychological theories (pp. 111136). Stanford University Press.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Hogg, M.A., Adelman, J.R., & Blagg, R.D. (2010). Religion in the face of uncertainty: An uncertainty-identity theory account of religiousness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 7283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309349692

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127156. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00230

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Huddy, L., & Bankert, A. (2017). Political partisanship as a social identity. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-250

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Iyengar, S., & Krupenkin, M. (2018, April). Partisanship as social identity: Implications for the study of party polarization. The Forum, 16(1), 2345. https://doi.org/10.1515/for-2018-0003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012). Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(3), 405431. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfs038

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Jang, W.E., Ko Y.J., & Chan-Olmsted S. (2015). Spectator-based sports team reputation: Scale development and validation. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 16(3), 5272. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-16-03-2015-B005

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Katje, C. (2020, October 10). The 2020 NBA Finals ratings are historically bad. But why? Yahoo! Finance. Retrieved January 2021 from https://finance.yahoo.com/news/2020-nba-finals-ratings-historically-202732628.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Keaton, S.A., & Gearhart, C.C. (2014). Identity formation, identity strength, and self-categorization as predictors of affective and psychological outcomes: A model reflecting sports team fans’ responses to highlights and lowlights of a college football season. Communication & Sport, 2(4), 363385. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513498077

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kees, J., Berry, C., Burton, S., & Sheehan, K. (2017). An analysis of data quality: Professional panels, student subject pools and Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Journal of Advertising, 46(1), 141155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2016.1269304

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kepner, T. (2020, March 12). MLB pushes back Opening Day over coronavirus concerns. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/sports/baseball/mlb-season-opening-day-coronavirus.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kilgo, D., & Mourão, R.R. (2019). Media effects and marginalized ideas: Relationships among media consumption and support for Black Lives Matter. International Journal of Communication, 13, 42874305.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kim, J.K., Overton, H., Bhalla, N., & Li, J.Y. (2020). Nike, Colin Kaepernick, and the politicization of sports: Examining perceived organizational motives and public responses. Public Relations Review, 46(2), 101856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2019.101856

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kimble, J. (2020, September 3). The NBA Bubble was never the players’ platform to fight systemic racism. LEVEL. https://level.medium.com/the-nba-bubble-was-never-the-players-platform-to-fight-systemic-racism-5c6796952922

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Kreiss, D., Lawrence, R.G., & McGregor, S.C. (2020). Political identity ownership: Symbolic contests to represent members of the public. Social Media + Society, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120926495

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Lee, A. (2020, October 19). NBA owners publicly support BLM, but donations say otherwise. Atlanta Journal-Constitution. https://www.ajc.com/news/weekend-read-nba-owners-publicly-support-blm-but-donations-say-otherwise/U3JOCY66SND2NOYUNDB4IFNBEI/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Lewis, N., & Hirt, E.R. (2018). Sacred sports: Moral responses to sports media content. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96(2), 579597. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018802256

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Li, J.-Y., Overton, H., & Bhalla, N. (2020). Communicative action and supportive behaviors for environmental CSR practices: An attitude-based segmentation approach. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 25(2), 171186. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCIJ-04-2019-0045

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Lim, J.S., & Young, C. (2021). Effects of issue ownership, perceived fit, and authenticity in corporate social advocacy on corporate reputation. Public Relations Review, 47(4). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0363811121000631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2021.102071

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Lock, D., & Heere, B. (2017). Identity crisis: A theoretical analysis of ‘team identification research. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17(4), 413435. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2017.1306872

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Maden, C., Arıkan, E., Telci, E.E., & Kantur, D. (2012). Linking corporate social responsibility to corporate reputation: A study on understanding behavioral consequences. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 58, 655664.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Madrigal, R. (1995). Cognitive and affective determinants of fan satisfaction with sporting event attendance. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(3), 205227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1995.11949745

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Mason, L. (2018). Losing common ground: Social sorting and polarization. The Forum, 16(1), 4766. https://doi.org/10.1515/for-2018-0004

  • Mason, W., & Suri, S. (2012). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 44(1), 123. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0124-6

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Matsakis, L. (2016, February 4). The unknown, poorly paid labor force powering academic research. Vice. https://www.vice.com/en/article/8q8ggb/the-unknown-poorly-paid-labor-force-powering-academic-research

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • McCarriston, S. (2020, July 21). NBA restart: Sneak peek shows ‘Black Lives Matter’ painted on bubble courts, distanced seats and large screens. CBS Sports. https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/nba-restart-sneak-peek-shows-black-lives-matter-painted-on-bubble-courts-distanced-seats-and-large-screens/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • McGregor, J., & Denham, H. (2021). Georgia sports teams and major companies such as Coca-Cola and Delta Air Lines condemn new state voting law. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/03/31/georgia-voting-law-companies/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Milgrom, P., & Roberts, J. (1982). Predation, reputation, and entry deterrence. Journal of Economic Theory, 27(2), 280312. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(82)90031-X

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Moore, G. (2005). Corporate character: Modern virtue ethics and the virtuous corporation. Business Ethics Quarterly, 15(4), 659685. https://doi.org/10.5840/beq200515446

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Moore, T. (2020, August 25). LeBron is right, George Hill is wrong about ‘Black Lives Matter’ messaging inside NBA bubble. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/terencemoore/2020/08/25/lebron-james-is-right-and-george-hill-is-wrong-about-black-lives-matter-response-from-inside-of-nba-bubble/?sh=7720b9cf62f1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • NBA.com. (2021, July 21). 2021 NBA Finals finishes up 32 percent in viewership vs. 2020 NBA Finals. https://www.nba.com/news/2021-nba-finals-finishes-up-32-percent-in-viewership

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • NBA.com. (2022, June 6). NBA Finals ratings up 37% from 2021 series. https://www.nba.com/news/nba-finals-ratings-up-37-percent-from-2021-series

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Niven, D. (2021). Who says shut up and dribble? Race and the response to athletes’ political activism. Journal of African American Studies, 25(2), 298311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-021-09534-6

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Paolacci, G., Chandler, J., & Ipeirotis, P. (2010). Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Judgment and Decision Making, 5, 411419.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Parcha, J.M., & Kingsley Westerman, C.Y. (2020). How corporate social advocacy affects attitude change toward controversial social issues. Management Communication Quarterly, 34(3), 350383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318920912196

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Paternoster, R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquero, A. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36(4), 859866.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Raney, A.A. (2006). Why we watch and enjoy mediated sports. In A.A. Raney & J. Bryant (Eds.), Handbook of sports and media (pp. 313329). Erlbaum.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Reid, S.A. (2012). A self-categorization explanation for the hostile media effect. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 381399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01647.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Roberts, P.W., & Dowling, G.R. (2002). Corporate reputation and sustained superior financial performance. Strategic Management Journal, 23(12), 10771093. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.274

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S., Halevy, N., & Eidelson, R. (2008). Toward a unifying model of identification with groups: Integrating theoretical perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(3), 280306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319225

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ross, S.D. (2006). A conceptual framework for understanding spectator- based brand equity. Journal of Sport Management, 20(1), 2238. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.20.1.22

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ross, S.D., James, J.D., & Vargas, P. (2006). Development of a scale to measure team brand associations in professional sport. Journal of Sport Management, 20(2), 260279. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.20.2.260

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Rugg, A. (2020). Incorporating the Protests: The NFL, Social Justice, and the Constrained Activism of the “Inspire Change” Campaign. Communication & Sport, 8(4–5), 611628. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479519896325

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Sato, S., Ko, Y., Park, C., & Tao, W. (2015). Athlete reputational crisis and consumer evaluation. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(4), 434453. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2015.1065895

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Schramm, H., & Knoll, J. (2017). Effects of women’s football broadcastings on viewers’ moods and judgments: Investigating the moderating role of team identification and sex. Communication Research, 44(1), 5476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215583894

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Shamon, H., & Berning, C. (2020). Attention check items and instructions in online surveys with incentivized and nonincentivized samples: Boon or bane for data quality? Survey Research Methods, 14, 5577.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Shih, M., Pittinsky, T., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10(1), 8083. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00111

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Shuv-Ami, A., & Toder Alon, A. (2020). How do you categorize yourself as a sports fan? A new scale of sports fan social–personal identity salience (FSPIS) and its consequences. Communication & Sport. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479520967278

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Spears, M. (2020, October 12). ‘Black Lives Matter, people’: How the NBA’s social justice efforts dominated the season. The Undefeated. https://theundefeated.com/features/how-the-nba-social-justice-efforts-dominated-the-season/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 223(5), 96102. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33(1), 139. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W.G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 724). Nelson-Hall.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Tetlock, P.E. (2003). Thinking the unthinkable: Sacred values and taboo cognitions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(7), 320324. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00135-9

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Tetlock, P.E., Kristel, O.V., Elson, S.B., Green, M.C., & Lerner, J.S. (2000). The psychology of the unthinkable: Taboo trade-offs, forbidden base rates, and heretical counterfactuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(5), 853870. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.853

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Thimsen, A. (2022). What is performative activism? Philosophy & Rhetoric, 55, 8389.

  • Turner, B., & Woike, D. (2020). NBA, players agree to “Black Lives Matter” and other messages to wear on jerseys. Tampa Bay Times. https://www.tampabay.com/news/2020/07/05/nba-players-agree-to-black-lives-matter-and-other-messages-to-wear-on-jerseys/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Turner, J.C., Oakes, P.J., Haslam, S.A., & McGarty, C. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 454463. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294205002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Vidaver-Cohen, D. (2007). Reputation beyond the rankings: A conceptual framework for business school research. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(4), 278304. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550055

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Wakefield, K. (2021, January 7). Are all fans equal? A league guide to who thrives in 2021. Forbes.com. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kirkwakefield/2021/01/07/are-all-fans-equal-a-league-guide-to-who-thrives-in-2021/?sh=6e3ee3675bf7

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Walker, K. (2010). A systematic review of the corporate reputation literature: Definition, measurement, and theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 12(4), 357387. https://doi.org/10.1057/crr.2009.26

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Walsh, K. (2012). Putting inequality in its place: Rural consciousness and the power of perspective. American Political Science Review, 106(3), 517532. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055412000305

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Walsh, K.C., Jennings, M.K., & Stoker, L. (2004). The effects of social class identification on participatory orientations towards government. British Journal of Political Science, 34(3), 469495.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Wann, D.L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19(4), 377396. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372395019004004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Waymer, D., & Logan, N. (2021). Corporate social advocacy as engagement: Nike’s social justice communication. Public Relations Review, 47(1), 102005. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0363811120301326

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Williams, D., & Olaniran, B. (2002). Crisis communication in racial issues. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 30(4), 293313. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880216595

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Woessner, M., & Kelly-Woessner, A. (2020). Why college students drift left: The stability of political identity and relative malleability of issue positions among college students. PS: Political Science & Politics, 53(4), 657664.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Xu, S. (2020). Issues, identity salience, and individual sense of connection to organizations: An identity-based approach. Journal of Public Relations Research, 32(3–4), 120139. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2020.1802731

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Yağız, K. (2020). The role of fan identification on the relationship between sports league brand associations and psychological commitment. European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science, 6(9), 124. https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejep/article/view/3456

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Yoon, Y., Gürhan-Canli, Z., & Schwarz, N. (2006). The effect of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities on companies with bad reputations. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(4), 377390. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1604_9

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Young, J. (2020, March 12). NHL suspends season due to coronavirus. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/12/nhl-to-suspend-season-due-to-coronavirus.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Yousaf, A., Bashir, M., & Mishra, A. (2020). Revisiting spectator-based sports team reputation: Strategic implications for team managers. Corporate Reputation Review, 23(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-019-00068-y

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Zagoria, A. (2020). NBA unveils court with “Black Lives Matter” logo on it. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamzagoria/2020/07/21/nba-unveils-court-with-black-lives-matter-logo-on-it/?sh=4c578a1b1618

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 508 508 89
Full Text Views 21 21 5
PDF Downloads 22 22 5