A Food First Approach to Carbohydrate Supplementation in Endurance Exercise: A Systematic Review

in International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

Click name to view affiliation

Kirsty M. Reynolds National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Kirsty M. Reynolds in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Tom Clifford National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Tom Clifford in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Stephen A. Mears National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Stephen A. Mears in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Lewis J. James National Centre for Sport and Exercise Medicine, School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Lewis J. James in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0261
Keywords:
glucose; fructose; supplements; running performance; cycling performance; gastrointestinal comfort
First Published Online:
01 Mar 2022
In Print:
Volume 32: Issue 4
Page Range:
296–310
Restricted access

This systematic review analyzed whether carbohydrate source (food vs. supplement) influenced performance and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms during endurance exercise. Medline, SPORTDiscus, and citations were searched from inception to July 2021. Inclusion criteria were healthy, active males and females aged >18 years, investigating endurance performance, and GI symptoms after ingestion of carbohydrate from a food or supplement, <60 min before or during endurance exercise. The van Rosendale scale was used to determine risk of bias, with seven studies having low risk of bias. A total of 151 participants from 15 studies were included in the review. Three studies provided 0.6–1 g carbohydrate/kg body mass during 5–45 min precycling exercise (duration 60–70 min) while 12 studies provided 24–80 g/hr carbohydrate during exercise (60–330 min). Except one study that suggested a likely harmful effect (magnitude-based inferences) of a bar compared to a gel consumed during exercise on cycling performance, there were no differences in running (n = 1) or cycling (n = 13) performance/capacity between food and supplemental sources. Greater GI symptoms were reported with food compared with supplemental sources. Highly heterogenous study designs for carbohydrate dose and timing, as well as exercise protocol and duration, make it difficult to compare findings between studies. A further limitation results from only one study assessing running performance. Food choices of carbohydrate consumed immediately before and during endurance exercise result in similar exercise performance/capacity responses to supplemental carbohydrate sources, but may slightly increase GI symptoms in some athletes, particularly with exercise >2 hr.

  • Collapse
  • Expand

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

Cover International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

  • Ashley, P., Di Iorio, A., Cole, E., &Needleman, I. (2015). Oral health of elite athletes and association with performance: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(1), 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2014-093617

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burke, L.M., Castell, L.M., Casa, D.J., Close, G.L., Costa, R.J., Desbrow, B., Halson, S.L., Lis, D.M., Melin, A.K., Peeling, P., & Saunders, P.U. (2019). International association of athletics federations consensus statement 2019: Nutrition for athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 29(2), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0065

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burke, L.M., Claassen, A., Hawley, J.A., & Noakes, T.D. (1998). Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal. Journal of Applied Physiology, 85(6), 2220–2226. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1998.85.6.2220

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burke, L.M., & Hawley, J.A. (2018). Swifter, higher, stronger: What’s on the menu? Science, 362(6416), 781–787. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2093

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burke, L.M., Hawley, J.A., Wong, S.H., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2011). Carbohydrate for training and competition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(Suppl. 1), S17–S27. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.585473

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burton, D.D., Kim, H.J., Camilleri, M., Stephens, D.A., Mullan, B.P., O’Connor, M.K., & Talley, N.J. (2005). Relationship of gastric emptying and volume changes after a solid meal in humans. American Journal of Physiology: Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 289(2), G261–G266. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00052.2005

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Calles-Escandón, J., Devlin, J.T., Whitcomb, W., & Horton, E.S. (1991). Pre-exercise feeding does not affect endurance cycle exercise but attenuates post-exercise starvation-like response. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 23, 818–824.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cermac, N.M., & Van Loon, L.J.C. (2013). The use of carbohydrates during exercise as an ergogenic aid. Sports Medicine, 43, 1139–1155.

  • Costello, J.T., Bieuzen, F., & Bleakley C.M. (2014). Where are all the female participants in sports and exercise medicine research? European Journal of Sport Science, 14(8), 847–851. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.911354

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Datz, F.L, Christian, P.E., & Moore, J. (1987). Gender-related differences in gastric emptying. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 28, 1204–1207.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • de Oliveira, E.P., Burini, R.C., & Jeukendrup, A. (2014.) Gastrointestinal complaints during exercise: Prevalence, etiology, and nutritional recommendations. Sports Medicine, 44(Suppl. 1), 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0153-2

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Earnest, C.P., Lancaster, S., Rasmussen, C., Kerk-Sick, C., Lucia, A., Greenwood, M., Almada, A., Cowan, P., & Kreider, R. (2004). Low vs. high glycemic index carbohydrate gel ingestion during simulated 64-km cycling time trial performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 466–472.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fuchs, C.J., Gonzalez, J.T., & Van Loon, L.J.C. (2019). Fructose co-ingestion to increase carbohydrate availability in athletes. Journal of Physiology, 597(14), 3549–3560. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP277116

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Funnell, M.P., Mears, S.A., Bergin-Taylor, K., & James, L.J. (2019). Blinded and unblinded hypohydration similarly impair cycling time trial performance in the heat in trained cyclists. Journal of Applied Physiology, 126(4), 870–879. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01026.2018

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Guillochon, M., & Rowlands, D.S. (2017). Solid, gel, and liquid carbohydrate format effects on gut comfort and performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 27(3), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2016-0211

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hawley, J.A., Burke, L.M., Angus, D.J., Fallon, K.E., Martin, D.T., & Febbraio, M.A. (2000). Effect of altering substrate availability on metabolism and performance during intense exercise. British Journal of Nutrition, 84(6), 829–838. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114500002440

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ishihara, K., Taniguchi, H., Akiyama, N., & Asami, Y. (2020). Easy to swallow rice cake as a carbohydrate source during endurance exercise suppressed feelings of thirst and hunger without changing exercise performance. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 66(2), 128–135. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.66.128

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jadad, A.R., Moore, R.A., Carroll, D., Jenkinson, C., Reynolds, D.J., Gavaghan, D.J., & McQuay, H.C. (1996). Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: Is blinding necessary? Controlled Clinical Trials, 17(1) 1–12.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • James, L.J, Funnell, M.P., James, R.M., & Mears, S.A. (2019). Does hypohydration really impair endurance performance? Methodological considerations for interpreting hydration research. Sports Medicine, 49, 103–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01188-5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jentjens, R.L., Moseley, L., Waring, R.H., Harding, L.K., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2004). Oxidation of combined ingestion of glucose and fructose during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 96(4), 1277–1284. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00974.2003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jeukendrup, A. (2011). Nutrition for endurance sports: Marathon, triathlon, and road cycling. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(Suppl. 1), S91–S99. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.610348

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jeukendrup, A.E. (2017). Training the gut for athletes. Sports Medicine, 47, 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0690-6

  • Kaviani, M., Chilibeck, P.D., Jochim, J., Gordon, J., & Zello, G.A. (2019). The glycemic index of sport nutrition bars affects performance and metabolism during cycling and next-day recovery. Journal of Human Kinetics, 66(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2018-0050

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kern, M., Heslin, C.J., & Rezende, R.S. (2007). Metabolic and performance effects of raisins versus sports gel as pre-exercise feedings in cyclists. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21, 1204–1207.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, J.K.W., Maughan, R.J., Shirreffs, S.M., & Watson, P. (2008). Effects of milk ingestion on prolonged exercise capacity in young, healthy men. Nutrition, 24(4), 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2008.01.001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Leiper, J.B. (2015). Fate of ingested fluids: Factors affecting gastric emptying and intestinal absorption of beverages in humans. Nutrition Reviews, 73(Suppl. 2), S57–S72. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuv032

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewis, D., Kamon, E., & Hodgson, J. (1986). Physiological differences between genders. Implications for sports conditioning. Sports Medicine, 3(5), 357–369. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-198603050-00005

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lis, D.M., Stellingwerff, T., Kitic, C.M., Fell, J.W., & Ahuja, K.D. (2018). Low fodmap: A preliminary strategy to reduce gastrointestinal distress in athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(1), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001419

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lugo, M., Sherman, W.M., Wimer, G.S., & Garleb, K. (1993). Metabolic responses when different forms of carbohydrate energy are consumed during cycling. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 3(4), 398–407. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.3.4.398

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marathe, C.S., Marathe, J.A., Rayner, C.K., Kar, P., Jones, K.L., & Horowitz, M. (2019). Hypoglycaemia and gastric emptying. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 21(3), 491–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13570

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marciani, L., Gowland, P.A., Spiller, R.C., Manoj, P., Moore, R.J., Young, P., Al-Sahab, S., Bush, D., Wright, J., & Fillery-Travis, A.J. (2000). Gastric response to increased meal viscosity assessed by echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging in humans. Journal of Nutrition, 130(1), 122–127. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/130.1.122

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marciani, L., Gowland, P.A., Spiller, R.C., Manoj, P., Moore, R.J., Young, P., & Fillery-Travis, A.J. (2001). Effect of meal viscosity and nutrients on satiety, intragastric dilution, and emptying assessed by MRI. American Journal of Physiology: Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 280(6), G1227–G1233. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.6.G1227

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Miall, A., Khoo, A., Rauch, C., Snipe, R.M.J., Camões-Costa, V.L., Gibson, P.R., & Costa, R.J.S. (2018). Two weeks of repetitive gut-challenge reduce exercise-associated gastrointestinal symptoms and malabsorption. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 28(2), 630–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12912

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Moseley, L., Lancaster, G.I., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2003). Effects of timing of pre-exercise ingestion of carbohydrate on subsequent metabolism and cycling performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88(4), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0728-8

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J.K., Burke, L.M., Ackerman, K.E., Blauwet, C., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., Lundy, B., Melin, A.K., Meyer, N.L., Sherman, R.T., Tenforde, A.S., Klungland Torstveit, M., & Budgett, R (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Murray, R., Eddy, D.E., Bartoli, W.P., & Paul, G.L. (1994). Gastric emptying of water and isocaloric carbohydrate solutions consumed at rest. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26(6), 725–732. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199406000-00012

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Neufer, P.D., Costill, D.L., Flynn, M.G., Kirwan, J.P., Mitchell, J.B., & Houmard, J. (1987). Improvements in exercise performance: Effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. Journal of Applied Physiology, 62(3), 983–988. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1987.62.3.983

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nieman, D.C., Gillitt, N.D., Henson, D.A., Sha, W., Shanely, R.A., Knab, A.M., Cialdella-Kam, L., & Jin, F. (2012). Bananas as an energy source during exercise: A metabolomics approach. PLoS One, 7(5), Article E37479. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037479

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nieman, D.C., Gillitt, N.D., Sha, W., Esposito, D., & Ramamoorthy, S. (2018). Metabolic recovery from heavy exertion following banana compared to sugar beverage or water only ingestion: A randomized, crossover trial. PLoS One, 13(3), Article E0194843. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194843

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Page, M.J., Mckenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., & Moher, D. (2021). Updating guidance for reporting systematic reviews: Development of the prisma 2020 statement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 134, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.02.003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Peters, H.P.F., Van Schelven, W.F., Verstappen, P.A., De Boer, R.W., Bol, E., Erich, W.B.M., Van Der Togt, C.R., & De Vries, W.R. (1995). Exercise performance as a function of semi-solid and liquid carbohydrate feedings during prolonged exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16(02), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-972974

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pettersson, S., Ahnoff, M., Edin, F., Lingström, P., Simark Mattsson, C., & Andersson-Hall, U. (2020). A hydrogel drink with high fructose content generates higher exogenous carbohydrate oxidation and a reduced drop in dental biofilm ph compared to two other, commercially available, carbohydrate sports drinks. Frontiers in Nutrition, 7, Article 88. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.00088

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pfeiffer, B., Stellingwerff, T., Hodgson, A.B., Randell, R., Pöttgen, K., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2012). Nutritional intake and gastrointestinal problems during competitive endurance events. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 44(2), 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31822dc809

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pfeiffer, B., Stellingwerff, T., Zaltas, E., Hodgson, A.B., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2011). Carbohydrate oxidation from a drink during running compared with cycling exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(2), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181ebc488

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pugh, J., Kirk, B., Fearn, R., Morton, J., & Close, G. (2018). Prevalence, severity and potential nutritional causes of gastrointestinal symptoms during a marathon in recreational runners. Nutrients, 10(7), Article 811. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10070811

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rauch, H.G.L., Hawley, J.A., Woodey, M., Noakes, T.D., & Dennis, S.C. (1999). Effects of ingesting a sports bar versus glucose polymer on substrate utilisation and ultra-endurance performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(04), 252–257. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-971126

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rehrer, N.J., Brouns, F., Beckers, E.J., Frey, W.O., Villiger, B., Riddoch, C.J, Menheere, P.P.C.A., & Saris, W.H.M. (1992). Physiological changes and gastro-intestinal symptoms as a result of ultra-endurance running. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 64(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00376431

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reider, B. (2012). Sex in sports medicine. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(6), 1231–1233.

  • Rietschier, H.L., Henagan, T.M., Earnest, C.P., Baker, B.L., Cortez, C.C., & Stewart, L.K. (2011). Sun-dried raisins are a cost-effective alternative to sports jelly beans in prolonged cycling. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(11), 3150. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31820f5089

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Robergs, R.A., Mcminn, S.B., Mermier, C., Leadbetter, G., Ruby, B., & Quinn, C. (1998). Blood glucose and glucoregulatory hormone responses to solid and liquid carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 8(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.8.1.70

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rollo, I., Carter, J.M., Close, G.L., Yangüas, J., Gomez-Diaz, A., Medina Leal, D., Duda, J.L., Holohan, D., Erith, S.J., & Podlog, L. (2020). Role of sports psychology and sports nutrition in return to play from musculoskeletal injuries in professional soccer: An interdisciplinary approach. European Journal of Sport Science, 21(7), 1054–1063. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2020.1792558

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rowlands, D.S., Houltham, S., Musa-Veloso, K., Brown, F., Paulionis, L., & Bailey, D. (2015). Fructose-glucose composite carbohydrate and endurance performance: Critical review and future perspectives. Sports Medicine, 45(11), 1561–1576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0381-0

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sainani, K.L. (2018). The problem with “magnitude-based inference.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(10), 2166–2176. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001645

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salvador, A.F., Mckenna, C.F., Alamilla, R.A., Cloud, R.M., Keeble, A.R., Miltko, A., Scaroni, S.E., Beals, J.W., Ulanov, A.V., Dilger, R.N., & Bauer, L.L. (2019). Potato ingestion is as effective as carbohydrate gels to support prolonged cycling performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 127(6), 1651–1659. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00567.2019

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Staudacher, H.M., & Whelan, K. (2017). The low fodmap diet: Recent advances in understanding its mechanisms and efficacy in IBS. Gut, 66(8), 1517–1527. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2017-313750

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stellingwerf, T., & Cox, G.R. (2014). Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying duration. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 39, 998–1011.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ten Haaf, D.S., Van Der Worp, M.P., Groenewoud, H.M., Leij-Halfwerk, S., Nijhuis-Van Der Sanden, M.W., Verbeek, A.L., & Staal, J.B. (2014). Nutritional indicators for gastrointestinal symptoms in female runners: The “marikenloop study.” BMJ Open, 4(8), Article e005780. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005780

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tiller, N.B., Roberts, J.D., Beasley, L., Chapman, S., Pinto, J.M., Smith, L., Wiffin, M, Russell, M., Sparks, S.A., Duckworth, L.& O’Hara, J. (2019). International society of sports nutrition position stand: Nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 16(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-019-0312-9

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Too, B.W., Cicai, S., Hockett, K.R., Applegate, E., Davis, B.A., & Casazza, G.A. (2012). Natural versus commercial carbohydrate supplementation and endurance running performance. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-9-27

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Trommelen, J., Fuchs, C.J., Beelen, M., Lenaerts, K., Jeukendrup, A.E., Cermak, N.M., & Van Loon, L.J. (2017). Fructose and sucrose intake increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during exercise. Nutrients, 9(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020167

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Van Loon, L.J., Greenhaff, P.L., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Saris, W.H., & Wagenmakers A.J. (2001). The effects of increasing exercise intensity on muscle fuel utilisation in humans. Journal of Physiology, 536, 295–304.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Van Rosendal, S.P., Osborne, M.A., Fassett, R.G., & Coombes, J.S. (2010). Guidelines for glycerol use in hyperhydration and rehydration associated with exercise. Sports Medicine, 40(2), 113–129. https://doi.org/10.2165/11530760-000000000-00000

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Venables, M.C., Shaw, L., Jeukendrup, A.E., Roedig-Penman, A., Finke, M., Newcombe, R.G., Parry J., & Smith A.J. (2005). Erosive effect of a new sports drink on dental enamel during exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 37(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000150017.74892.F5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vist, G.E., & Maughan, R.J. (1995). The effect of osmolality and carbohydrate content on the rate of gastric emptying of liquids in man. The Journal of Physiology, 486(2), 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1995.sp020831

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zhang, X., O’Kennedy, N., & Morton, J.P. (2015). Extreme variation of nutritional composition and osmolality of commercially available carbohydrate energy gels. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 25(5), 504–509. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0215

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 5406 2874 148
Full Text Views 183 100 4
PDF Downloads 231 127 3