Stressed and Not Sleeping: Poor Sleep and Psychological Stress in Elite Athletes Prior to the Rio 2016 Olympic Games

in International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Click name to view affiliation

Shona L. Halson
Search for other papers by Shona L. Halson in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Renee N. Appaneal
Search for other papers by Renee N. Appaneal in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Marijke Welvaert
Search for other papers by Marijke Welvaert in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Nirav Maniar
Search for other papers by Nirav Maniar in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Michael K. Drew
Search for other papers by Michael K. Drew in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0117
Keywords:
observational study; sleep quality; disurbed sleep
First Published Online:
21 Sep 2021
In Print:
Volume 17: Issue 2
Page Range:
195–202
Restricted access

Purpose: Psychological stress is reported to be an important contributor to reduced sleep quality and quantity observed in elite athletes. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between psychological stress and sleep and to identify if specific aspects of sleep are disturbed. Methods: One hundred thirty-one elite athletes (mean [SD], male: n = 46, age 25.8 [4.1] y; female: n = 85, age 24.3 [3.9] y) from a range of sports completed a series of questionnaires in a 1-month period approximately 4 months before the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. Questionnaires included the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; Recovery-Stress Questionnaire; Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS 21); and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Results: Regression analysis identified the PSS and DASS stress as the main variables associated with sleep. A PSS score of 6.5 or higher was associated with poor sleep. In addition, a PSS score lower than 6.5 combined with a DASS stress score higher than 4.5 was also associated with poor sleep. Univariate analyses on subcomponents of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index confirmed that PSS is associated with lower sleep quality (t99 = 2.40, P = .018), increased sleep disturbances (t99 = 3.37, P = .001), and increased daytime dysfunction (t99 = 2.93, P = .004). DASS stress was associated with increased sleep latency (t94 = 2.73, P = .008), increased sleep disturbances (t94 = 2.25, P = .027), and increased daytime dysfunction (t94 = 3.58, P = .001). Conclusions: A higher stress state and higher perceived stress were associated with poorer sleep, in particular increased sleep disturbances and increased daytime dysfunction. Data suggest that relatively low levels of psychological stress are associated with poor sleep in elite athletes.

Halson is with the School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, McAuley at Banyo, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. Appaneal and Drew are with the Australian Inst of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia, and the University of Canberra Research Inst for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Canberra, ACT, Australia. Welvaert is with the Statistical Consulting Unit, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Maniar is with the School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

Halson (shona.halson@acu.edu.au) is corresponding author.
  • Collapse
  • Expand

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Cover International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
  • 1.

    Walsh NP, Halson SL, Sargent C, et al. Sleep and the athlete: narrative review and 2021 expert consensus recommendations. Br J Sports Med. 2020;55(7):356–368. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2020-102025

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    King AJ, Burke LM, Halson SL, Hawley JA. The challenge of maintaining metabolic health during a global pandemic. Sports Med. 2020;50(7):1233–1241. PubMed ID: 32449141 doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01295-8

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 3.

    Lastella M, Roach GD, Halson SL, Martin DT, West NP, Sargent C. Sleep/wake behaviour of endurance cyclists before and during competition. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(3):293–299. PubMed ID: 25105558 doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.942690

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 4.

    Lastella M, Roach GD, Vincent GE, Scanlan AT, Halson SL, Sargent C. The impact of training load on sleep during a 14-day training camp in elite, adolescent, female basketball players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2020;15(5):724–730. PubMed ID: 32015213 doi:10.1123/ijspp.2019-0157

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    Dunican IC, Higgin CC, Murray K, et al. Sleep patterns and alertness in an elite super rugby team during a game week. J Hum Kinet. 2019;67(1):111–121. PubMed ID: 31523310 doi:10.2478/hukin-2018-0088

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 6.

    Dunican IC, Higgins CC, Jones MJ, et al. Caffeine use in a Super Rugby game and its relationship to post-game sleep. Eur J Sport Sci. 2018;18(4):513–523. PubMed ID: 29431593 doi:10.1080/17461391.2018.1433238

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7.

    Drew M, Vlahovich N, Hughes D, et al. Prevalence of illness, poor mental health and sleep quality and low energy availability prior to the 2016 Summer Olympic Games. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(1):47–53. PubMed ID: 29056598 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2017-098208

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 8.

    Gupta L, Morgan K, Gilchrist S. Does elite sport degrade sleep quality? A systematic review. Sports Med. 2017;47(7):1317–1333. PubMed ID: 27900583 doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0650-6

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9.

    Jones MJ, Dawson B, Gucciardi DF, et al. Evening electronic device use and sleep patterns in athletes. J Sports Sci. 2018:37(8):864–870. PubMed ID: 30326782 doi:10.1080/02640414.2018.1531499

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 10.

    Juliff LE, Halson SL, Peiffer JJ. Understanding sleep disturbance in athletes prior to important competitions. J Sci Med Sport. 2015;18(1):13–18. PubMed ID: 24629327 doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2014.02.007

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 11.

    Halson SL. Sleep in elite athletes and nutritional interventions to enhance sleep. Sports Med. 2014;44(suppl 1):13–23. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0147-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Biggins M, Cahalan R, Comyns T, Purtill H, O’Sullivan K. Poor sleep is related to lower general health, increased stress and increased confusion in elite Gaelic athletes. Phys Sportsmed. 2018;46(1):14–20. PubMed ID: 29224470 doi:10.1080/00913847.2018.1416258

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 13.

    Biggins M, Purtill H, Fowler P, et al. Sleep in elite multi-sport athletes: implications for athlete health and wellbeing. Phys Ther Sport. 2019;39:136–142. PubMed ID: 31369982 doi:10.1016/j.ptsp.2019.07.006

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 14.

    Brandt R, Bevilacqua GG, Andrade A. Perceived sleep quality, mood states, and their relationship with performance among Brazilian elite athletes during a competitive period. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(4):1033–1039. PubMed ID: 28328717 doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001551

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 15.

    Drew MK, Vlahovich N, Hughes D, et al. A multifactorial evaluation of illness risk factors in athletes preparing for the Summer Olympic Games. J Sci Med Sport. 2017;20(8):745–750. PubMed ID: 28385561 doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2017.02.010

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 16.

    Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, III, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. The pittsburgh sleep quality index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1989;28(2):193–213. PubMed ID: 2748771 doi:10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17.

    Kellmann M, Kallus KW. Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes: User Manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2001.

  • 18.

    Lovibond SH, Lovibond PF. Manual for the Depression Anxiety & Stress Scales. 2nd ed. Psychology Foundation of Australia; 1995.

  • 19.

    Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24(4):385–386. PubMed ID: 6668417 doi:10.2307/2136404

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 20.

    Vaughan RS, Edwards EJ, MacIntyre TE. Mental health measurement in a post Covid-19 world: psychometric properties and invariance of the DASS-21 in athletes and non-athletes. Front Psychol. 2020;11:590559. PubMed ID: 33192930 doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590559

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Chiu YH, Lu FJ, Lin JH, Nien CL, Hsu YW, Liu HY. Psychometric properties of the perceived stress scale (PSS): measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes and construct validity. Peer J. 2016;4:e2790. PubMed ID: 27994983 doi:10.7717/peerj.2790

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 22.

    R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. 2019. Accessed October 14, 2020. https://www.R-project.org/

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 23.

    Breiman L, Friedman JH, Olshen RA, Stone CJ. Classification and Regression Trees. Wadsworth; 1984.

  • 24.

    rpart: Recursive Partitioning and Regression Trees. 2019. Accessed October 14, 2020. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rpart

  • 25.

    Hrozanova M, Moen F, Pallesen S. Unique predictors of sleep quality in junior athletes: the protective function of mental resilience, and the detrimental impact of sex, worry and perceived stress. Front Psychol. 2019;10:1256. PubMed ID: 31214076 doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01256

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 26.

    Galambos SA, Terry PC, Moyle GM, Locke SA, Lane AM. Psychological predictors of injury among elite athletes. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39(6):351–354. PubMed ID: 15911606 doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.018440

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D. Who’s stressed? Distributions of psychological stress in the United States in probability samples from 1983, 2006, and 2009. J Appl Soc Psychol. 2012;42(6):1320–1334. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00900.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 28.

    Wilson SJ, Nutt DJ, Alford C, et al. British association for psychopharmacology consensus statement on evidence-based treatment of insomnia, parasomnias and circadian rhythm disorders. J Psychopharmacol. 2010;24(11):1577–1601. PubMed ID: 20813762 doi:10.1177/0269881110379307

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 29.

    van Dalfsen JH, Markus CR. The influence of sleep on human hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity: a systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;39:187–194. PubMed ID: 29126903 doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2017.10.002

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 30.

    Lo Martire V, Caruso D, Palagini L, Zoccoli G, Bastianini S. Stress & sleep: a relationship lasting a lifetime. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;117:65–77. PubMed ID: 31491473 doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.024

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    Carskadon MA, Dement WC. Cumulative effects of sleep restriction on daytime sleepiness. Psychophysiology. 1981;18(2):107–113. PubMed ID: 6111825 doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb02921.x

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    Qaseem A, Kansagara D, Forciea MA, Cooke M, Denberg TD, Clinical Guidelines Committee of The American College of Physician. Management of chronic insomnia disorder in adults: a clinical practice guideline from the American college of physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165(2):125–33. PubMed ID: 27136449 doi:10.7326/M15-2175

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 5445 2182 72
Full Text Views 125 45 4
PDF Downloads 163 60 6