The Importance of Positive Relationships for Coaches’ Effectiveness and Well-Being

in International Sport Coaching Journal

Click name to view affiliation

Louise Davis Department of Psychology, Umeå University, Sweden & Umeå School of Sports Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

Search for other papers by Louise Davis in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Sophia Jowett School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Sophia Jowett in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Daniel Sörman Department of Health, Education and Technology, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

Search for other papers by Daniel Sörman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2709-9966
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2021-0065
Keywords:
performance; coaching efficacy; coach–athlete relationships
First Published Online:
31 Dec 2022
In Print:
Volume 10: Issue 2
Page Range:
254–265
Restricted access

The present study investigated the role of quality coach–athlete relationships and coaching efficacy on coaches’ well-being and performance. We examined whether coaches’ direct and meta-perspectives of the coach–athlete relationship quality predicted dimensions of coaches’ efficacy, hedemonic and eudaimonic well-being, and coach-related performance. A total of 233 male and female Swedish coaches from various team and individual sports completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, and a one-single item developed to measure perceived coach performance. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that quality coach–athlete relationships as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity associated with all four dimensions of coach efficacy. While coach–athlete relationship quality was linked with coaches’ positive affect, vitality, and satisfaction with coaching performance, only the motivational dimension of coach efficacy was associated with indicators of coach well-being and coach-related performance. Further analyses showed that the motivational dimension of coach efficacy explained the link between coach–athlete relationship quality, well-being, and coach-related performance. Overall, the findings extended the coach efficacy model by investigating the coach–athlete relationship as a predictor and coach well-being as an outcome. Our findings emphasize the importance of relationships for coaches’ efficacy and well-being.

Sörman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2709-9966

Davis (louise.davis@umu.se) is corresponding author.

Supplementary Materials

    • Supplementary Material S1 (PDF 370 KB)
  • Collapse
  • Expand

International Sport Coaching Journal

Cover International Sport Coaching Journal

  • Adie, J.W., & Jowett, S. (2010). Meta‐perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation among sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(11), 2750–2773. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00679.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alcaraz, S., Torregrosa, M., & Viladrich, C. (2015). How coaches’ motivations mediate between basic psychological needs and well-being/ill-being. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(3), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2015.1049691

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Arbuckle, J.L. (2016). Amos (Version 26.0) [Computer Program]. IBM SPSS.

  • Archer, T., Adolfsson, B., Karlsson, E. (2008). Affective personality as cognitive-emotional presymptom profiles regulatory for self-reported health predispositions. Neurotox Res. 14(1), 21–44. PubMed ID: 18790723 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03033573

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Arriaga, X.B., & Agnew, C.R. (2001). Being committed: Affective, cognitive, and conative components of relationship commitment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(9), 1190–1203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201279011

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Balduck, A-L., & Jowett, S. (2010). Psychometric properties of the Belgian coach version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20(5), 779–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01020.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bentzen, M., Lemyre, P-N., & Kentta, G. (2016). Changes in motivation and burnout indices in high-performance coaches over the course of a competitive season. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28(1), 28–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2015.1053160

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bishop C. (2011). The Long Win: The search for a better way to succeed. London: Practical Inspiration Publishing.

  • Bissett, J.E., Kroshus, E., & Hebard, S. (2020). Determining the role of sports coaches in promoting athlete mental health a narrative review and Delphi approach. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, 6(1), e000676. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000676

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Byrne, B.M. (2001). Multivariate applications book series. Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cardy, R.L., & Dobbins, G.H. (1986). Affect and appraisal accuracy—Liking as an integral dimension in evaluating performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 672–678. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.4.672

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Carson, F., Malakellis, M., Walsh, J., Main, L.C., & Kremer, P. (2019). Examining the mental well-being of Australian sport coaches. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(23), 4601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234601

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chase, M.A., Feltz, D.L., Hayashi, S.W., & Hepler, T.J. (2005). Sources of coaching efficacy: The coaches’ perspective. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(1), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2005.9671756

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Contreira, A.R., Andrade do Nascimento Junior, J.R., Pizzo, G.C., Sitoe, S.A., Moreira, C.R., Jowett, S., & Fiorese, L. (2019). Psychometric properties of the brazilian version of the coach–athlete relationship questionnaire for coaches. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(3), 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1747954119832715

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Côté, J., & Gilbert, W. (2009). An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 4(3), 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1260%2F174795409789623892

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cronin, C., & Armour, K.M. (2017). ‘Being’in the coaching world: New insights on youth performance coaching from an interpretative phenomenological approach. Sport, Education and Society, 22(8), 919–931. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2015.1108912

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, L., Appleby, R., Davis, P., Wetherell, M., & Gustafsson, H. (2018). The role of coach-athlete relationship quality in team sport athletes’ psychophysiological exhaustion: Implications for physical and cognitive performance. Journal of Sports Science, 36(17), 1985–1992. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2018.1429176

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, L., & Jowett, S. (2014). Coach-athlete attachment and the quality of the coach-athlete relationship: Implications for athlete’s well-being. Journal of Sports Science, 32(15), 1454–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.898183

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Lafrenière, M.-A.K. (2013). An attachment theory perspective in the examination of relational processes associated with coach-athlete dyads. Journal of Sport Exercise Psychology, 35(2), 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.2.156

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, L., Jowett, S., & Tafvelin, S. (2019). Communication strategies: The fuel for quality coach-athlete relationships and athlete satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2156. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02156

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2008). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2014). Autonomy and need satisfaction in close relationships: Relationships motivation theory. In N. Weinstein (Ed.), Human motivation and interpersonal relationships: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 53–73). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8542-6_3

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Diener, E. (2009). Subjective well-being. In E. Diener (Eds.), The science of well-being. Social indicators research series (vol. 37). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2350-6_2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Tay, L. (2018). Advances in subjective well-being research. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(4), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0307-6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Diener, E., & Ryan, K. (2009). Subjective well-being: A general overview. South African Journal of Psychology, 39(4), 391–406. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/008124630903900402

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Felton, L., & Jowett, S. (2013). Attachment and well-being: The mediating effects of psychological needs satisfaction within the coach-athlete and parent-athlete relational contexts. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.07.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Feltz, D.L., Chase, M.A., Moritz, S.E., & Sullivan, P.J. (1999). A conceptual model of coaching efficacy: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), 765. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.765

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Finney, S.J., & Distefano, C. (2006). “Non-normal categorical data in structural equation modeling”. In G.R. Hancock & R.O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modelling: A second course (2nd ed.). Information Age Publishing.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fletcher, D., & Scott, M. (2010). Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice. Journal of Sports Science, 28(2), 127–137. https://doi.org10.1080/02640410903406208

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gosai, J., Jowett, S., & Nascimento-Júnior, J.R.A.D. (2021). When leadership, relationships and psychological safety promote flourishing in sport and life. Sports Coaching Review, 1–21. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2021.1936960

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hägglund, K., Kenttä, G., Thelwell, R., & Wagstaff, C.R. (2021). Mindful self-reflection to support sustainable high-performance coaching: A process evaluation of a novel method development in elite sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 34(2), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2021.1925782

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hampson, R., & Jowett, S. (2014). Effects of coach leadership and coach-athlete relationship on collective efficacy. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 24(2), 454–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01527.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hayes, A.F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford.

  • Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M.R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60. http://www.ejbrm.com/vol6/v6-i1/v6-i1-papers.htm

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modelling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • IBM Corp (2019). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows. Version 26.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

  • Jowett, S. (2007). Interdependence analysis and the 3+ 1Cs in the coach-athlete relationship. In S. Jowette & D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp. 15–27). Human Kinetics.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S. (2008a). What makes coaches tick? The impact of coaches’ intrinsic and extrinsic motives on their own satisfaction and that of their athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 18(5), 664–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2007.00705.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S. (2008b). Moderators and mediators of the association between the coach-athlete relationship and physical self-concept. International Journal of Coaching Science, 2, 43–62.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S. (2009). Factor structure and criterion validity of the meta perspective version of the coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART-Q). Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 13(3), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014998

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S. (2017). Coaching effectiveness: The coach–athlete relationship at its heart. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 154–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S., Michel, N., & Yang, S. (2017). Unravelling the Links between Coach Behaviours and Coach-Athlete Relationships. European Journal of Sports and Exercise Science, 5(3), 10–19.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S., & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). The coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART – Q): Development and initial validation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 14(4), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2003.00338.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S., & Shanmugam, V. (2017). Relational coaching in sport: Its psychological underpinnings and practical effectiveness. In R. Schinke, K.R. McGannon, & B. Smith (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of sport psychology (pp. 471–484). Routledge.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jowett, S., & Slade, K. (2021). Coach-athlete relationships: The role of ability, intentions, and iIntegrity. Athletic development (pp. 89–106). Routledge.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kavussanu, M., Boardley, I.D., Jutkiewicz, N., Vincent, S., & Ring, C. (2008). Coaching efficacy and coaching effectiveness: Examining their predictors and comparing coaches’ and athletes’ reports. The Sport Psychologist, 22(4), 383–404. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.22.4.383

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Konting, M.M., Kamaruddin, N., & Man, N.A. (2009). Quality assurance in higher education institutions: Exit survey among Universiti Putra Malaysia graduating students. International Education Studies, 2(1), 25–31. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v2n1p25

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lorimer, R., & Jowett, S. (2010). Feedback of information, individual and personality differences in the empathic accuracy of sport coaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marsh, H.W. (2007). Application of confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling in sport/exercise psychology. In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed.). Wiley.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Martela, F., & Sheldon, K.M. (2019). Clarifying the concept of well-being: Psychological need satisfaction as the common core connecting eudaimonic and subjective well-being. Review of General Psychology, 23(4), 458–474. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1089268019880886

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mazzer, K.R., & Rickwood, D.J. (2015). Mental health in sport: Coaches’ views of their role and efficacy in supporting young people’s mental health. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 53(2), 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2014.965841

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McGee, V., & DeFreese, J.D. (2019). The coach-athlete relationship and athlete psychological outcomes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 13(1), 152–174. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2018-0010

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McNeill, K., Durand-Bush, N., & Lemyre, P.-N. (2018). Thriving, depleted, and at-risk Canadian coaches: Profiles of psychological functioning linked to self-regulation and stress. International Sport Coaching Journal, 5(2), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2017-0042

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Myers, N.D., Feltz, D.L., & Wolfe, E.W. (2008). A confirmatory study of rating scale category effectiveness for the coaching efficacy scale. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(3), 300–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2008.10599493

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Norris, L.A., Didymus, F.F., & Kaiseler, M. (2017). Stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 33, 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.08.005

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Olusoga, P., Bentzen, M., & Kenttä, G. (2019). Coach burnout: A scoping review. International Sport Coaching Journal, 61(1), 42–62. https://doi.org/10.1123.iscj.2017-0094

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Olympiou, A., Jowett, S., & Duda, J.L. (2008). The psychological interface between the coach-created motivational climate and the coach-athlete relationship in team sports. The Sport Psychologist, 22(4), 423–438. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.22.4.423

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Preacher, K.J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Preacher, K.J., Rucker, D.D., & Hayes, A.F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypothesis: Theory, methods and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 42(1), 185–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raven, B.H. (2004). “Power, six bases of”, encyclopedia of leadership. SAGE.

  • Ryan, R.M., & Frederick, C.M. (1997). On energy, personality and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65(3), 529–565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00326.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ryan, R.M., Huta, V., & Deci, E.L. (2013). Living well: A self determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. In A. Delle Fave (Ed.), The exploration of happiness (pp. 117–139). Springer.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Short, S.E., Smiley, M., & Ross-Stewart, L. (2005). The relationship between efficacy beliefs and imagery use in coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 19(4), 380–394. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.19.4.380

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Solstad, B.E., Ivarsson, A., Haug, E.M., & Ommundsen, Y. (2018). Youth sport coaches’ well-being across the season: The psychological costs and benefits of giving empowering and disempowering sports coaching to athletes. International Sport Coaching Journal, 5, 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2017-0026

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stebbings, J., Taylor, I.M., & Spray, C.M. (2011). Antecedents of percieved coach autonomy supportive and controlling behaviours: Coach psychological need satisfaction and well-being. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(2), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.2.255

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stebbings, J., Taylor, I.M., & Spray, C.M. (2015). The relationship between psychological well- and ill-being, and perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles: A longitudinal study of sport coaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19, 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.02.002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stebbings, J., Taylor, I.M., Spray, C.M., & Ntoumanis, N. (2012). Antecedents of perceived coach interpersonal behaviors: The coaching environment and coach psychological well- and ill-being. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 34(4), 481–502. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.34.4.481

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sullivan, P.J., & Kent, A. (2003). Coaching efficacy as a predictor of leadership style in intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200305404

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thelwell, R.C., Wagstaff, C.R.D., Chapman, M.T., & Kenttä, G. (2017a). Examining coaches’ perceptions of how their stress influences the coach–athlete relationship. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(19), 1928–1939. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1241422

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thelwell, R.C., Wagstaff, C.R.D., Rayner, A., Chapman, M., & Barker, J. (2017b). Exploring athletes’ perceptions of coach stress in elite sport environments. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(1), 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1154979

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thompson, E.R. (2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022106297301

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vealey, R.S., Coppola, A., Martin, E., Ward, R.M., & Chamberlin, J. (2020). The slippery slope: Can motivation and perfectionism lead to burnout in coaches? International Sport Coaching Journal, 7(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2018-0043

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 1109 1109 86
Full Text Views 66 66 11
PDF Downloads 112 112 11