Protective Role of Recent and Past Long-Term Physical Activity on Age-Related Cognitive Decline: The Moderating Effect of Sex

in Journal of Aging and Physical Activity

Click name to view affiliation

Iréné Lopez-Fontana
Search for other papers by Iréné Lopez-Fontana in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Carole Castanier
Search for other papers by Carole Castanier in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Christine Le Scanff
Search for other papers by Christine Le Scanff in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Alexandra Perrot
Search for other papers by Alexandra Perrot in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2016-0362
Keywords:
aging; cognitive decline; exercise; HLAQ; MAQ
In Print:
Volume 26: Issue 3
Page Range:
353–362
Restricted access

This study aimed to investigate if the impact of both recent and long-term physical activity on age-related cognitive decline would be modified by sex. One-hundred thirty-five men (N = 67) and women (N = 68) aged 18 to 80 years completed the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire and the Historical Leisure Activity Questionnaire. A composite score of cognitive functions was computed from five experimental tasks. Hierarchical regression analyses performed to test the moderating effect of recent physical activity on age-cognition relationship had not revealed significant result regardless of sex. Conversely, past long-term physical activity was found to slow down the age-related cognitive decline among women (β = 0.22, p = .03), but not men. The findings support a lifecourse approach in identifying determinants of cognitive aging and the importance of taking into account the moderating role of sex. This article presented potential explanations for these moderators and future avenues to explore.

Lopez-Fontana, Castanier, Le Scanff, and Perrot are with CIAMS, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France; and CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, Orléans, France. Lopez-Fontana is also with the Dept. of Sports Sciences & Physical Education, University of Paris-Saclay and Orléans, France.

Address author correspondence to Iréné Lopez-Fontana at irene.lopezfontana@gmail.com.
  • Collapse
  • Expand

Journal of Aging and Physical Activity

Cover Journal of Aging and Physical Activity

  • Aarsland, D., Sardahaee, F.S., Anderssen, S., & Ballard, C. (2010). Is physical activity a potential preventive factor for vascular dementia? A systematic review. Aging Mental Health, 14, 386–395. PubMed doi:10.1080/13607860903586136

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aartsen, M.J., Smits, C.H., van Tilburg, T., Knipscheer, K.C., & Deeg, D.J. (2002). Activity in older adults cause or consequence of cognitive functioning? A longitudinal study on everyday activities and cognitive performance in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 57(2), 153–162. PubMed doi:10.1093/geronb/57.2.P153

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aiken, L.S., & West, S.G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. London, UK: Sage.

  • Ainsworth, B.E., Haskell, W.L., Whitt, M.C., Irwin, M.L., Swartz, A.M., Strath, S.J., … Leon, A.S. (2000). Compendium of physical activities: An update of activity codes and MET intensities. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32(9), S498–S516. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005768-200009001-00009

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Albinet, C.T., Abou-Dest, A., André, N., & Audiffren, M. (2016). Executive functions improvement following a 5-month aquaerobics program in older adults: Role of cardiac vagal control in inhibition performance. Biological Psychology, 115, 69–77. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.01.010

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Andel, R., Crowe, M., Pedersen, N.L., Fratiglioni, L., Johansson, B., & Gatz, M. (2008). Physical exercise at midlife and risk of dementia three decades later: A population-based study of Swedish twins. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 63(1), 62–66. doi:10.1093/gerona/63.1.62

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Andel, R., Silverstein, M., & Kåreholt, I. (2014). The role of midlife occupational complexity and leisure activity in late-life cognition. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(2), 314–321. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu110

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Angevaren, M., Aufdemkampe, G., Verhaar, H.J., Aleman, A., & Vanhees, L. (2008). Physical activity and enhanced fitness improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3(3): CD005381. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(08)70231-1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Anguera, J.A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J.L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., … Gazzaley, A. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101. PubMed doi:10.1038/nature12486

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Arbuthnott, K., & Frank, J. (2000). Trail making test, part B as a measure of executive control: Validation using a set-switching paradigm. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22(4), 518–528. PubMed doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200008)22:4;1-0;FT518

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baker, L.D., Frank, L.L., Foster-Schubert, K., Green, P.S., Wilkinson, C.W., McTiernan, A., … Craft, S. (2010). Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: A controlled trial. Archives of Neurology, 67(1), 71–79. PubMed doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.307

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barnes, D.E., Santos-Modesitt, W., Poelke, G., Kramer, A.F., Castro, C., Middleton, L.E., & Yaffe, K. (2013). The Mental Activity and eXercise (MAX) trial: A randomized controlled trial to enhance cognitive function in older adults. JAMA Internal Medicine, 173(9), 797–804. PubMed doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.189

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beason-Held, L.L., Moghekar, A., Zonderman, A.B., Kraut, M.A., & Resnick, S.M. (2007). Longitudinal changes in cerebral blood flow in the older hypertensive brain. Stroke, 38(6), 1766–1773. PubMed doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.106.477109

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Carbon, M.G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77–100. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bherer, L., Erickson, K.I., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). A review of the effects of physical activity and exercise on cognitive and brain functions in older adults. Journal of Aging Research, 2013, 1–8. doi:10.1155/2013/657508

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blondell, S.J., Hammersley-Mather, R., & Veerman, J.L. (2014). Does physical activity prevent cognitive decline and dementia?: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1–12. PubMed doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-510

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blumenthal, J.A., Emery, C.F., Madden, D.J., Schniebolk, S., Walsh-Riddle, M., George, L.K., … Coleman, R.E. (1991). Long-term effects of exercise on psychological functioning in older men and women. Journal of Gerontology, 46(6), P352–P361. PubMed doi:10.1093/geronj/46.6.P352

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boucard, G.K., Albinet, C.T., Bugaiska, A., Bouquet, C.A., Clarys, D., & Audiffren, M. (2012). Impact of physical activity on executive functions in aging: A selective effect on inhibition among old adults. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(6), 808–827. PubMed doi:10.1123/jsep.34.6.808

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bunce, D., & Murden, F. (2006). Age, aerobic fitness, executive function, and episodic memory. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18(2), 221–233. doi:10.1080/09541440540000185

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Carlson, M.C., Helms, M.J., Steffens, D.C., Burke, J.R., Potter, G.G., & Plassman, B.L. (2008). Midlife activity predicts risk of dementia in older male twin pairs. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 4(5), 324–331. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2008.07.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Caspersen, C.J., Pereira, M.A., & Curran, K.M. (2000). Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32(9), 1601–1609. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005768-200009000-00013

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cassilhas, R.C., Viana, V.A.R., Grassmann, V., Santos, R.T., Santos, R.F., Tufik, S., & Mello, M.T. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(8), 1401–1407. PubMed doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chasan-Taber, L., Erickson, J.B., McBride, J.W., Nasca, P.C., Chasan-Taber, S., & Freedson, P.S. (2002). Reproducibility of a self-administered lifetime physical activity questionnaire among female college alumnae. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155(3), 282–291. PubMed doi:10.1093/aje/155.3.282

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A.F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125–130. PubMed doi:10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Corrigan, J.D., & Hinkeldey, N.S. (1987). Relationships between parts A and B of the Trail Making Test. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43(4), 402–409. PubMed doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198707)43:4<402::AID-JCLP2270430411>3.0.CO;2-E

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cumming, R.G., & Klineberg, R.J. (1994). A study of the reproducibility of long-term recall in the elderly. Epidemiology, 5(1), 116–119. PubMed doi:10.1097/00001648-199401000-00017

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Daigneault, S., Braun, C.M., & Whitaker, H.A. (1992). Early effects of normal aging on perseverative and non-perseverative prefrontal measures. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8(1), 99–114. doi:10.1080/87565649209540518

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deary, I.J., Whalley, L.J., Batty, G.D., & Starr, J.M. (2006). Physical fitness and lifetime cognitive change. Neurology, 67(7), 1195–1200. PubMed doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000238520.06958.6a

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dik, M.G., Deeg, D.J.H., Visser, M., & Jonker, C. (2003). Early life physical activity and cognition at old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 643–653. doi:10.1076/jcen.25.5.643.14583

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dupuy, O., Gauthier, C.J., Fraser, S.A., Desjardins-Crapeau, L., Desjardins, M., Mekary, S., … Bherer, L. (2015). Higher levels of cardiovascular fitness are associated with better executive function and prefrontal oxygenation in younger and older women. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 66. PubMed doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00066

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Emery, C.F., & Gatz, M. (1990). Psychological and cognitive effects of an exercise program for community-residing older adults. The Gerontologist, 30(2), 184–188. PubMed doi:10.1093/geront/30.2.184

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Erickson, K.I., Colcombe, S.J., Elavsky, S., McAuley, E., Korol, D.L., Scalf, P.E., & Kramer, A.F. (2007). Interactive effects of fitness and hormone treatment on brain health in postmenopausal women. Neurobiology of Aging, 28(2), 179–185. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.11.016

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Erickson, K.I., Gildengers, A.G., & Butters, M.A. (2013). Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 15(1), 99–108.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Etaugh, C. (1983). The influence of environmental factors on sex differences in children’s play. In M.B. Liss (Ed.), Social and cognitive skills: Sex roles and children’s play. New York, NY: Academic Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Etnier, J.L., & Chang, Y.K. (2009). The effect of physical activity on executive function: A brief commentary on definitions, measurement issues, and the current state of the literature. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31(4), 469–483. PubMed doi:10.1123/jsep.31.4.469

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., & McHugh, P.R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. PubMed doi:10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gearin, B.M., & Fien, H. (2016). Translating the neuroscience of physical activity to education. Trends in Neuroscience & Education, 5(1), 12–19. doi:10.1016/j.tine.2016.02.001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gow, A.J., Pattie, A., & Deary, I.J. (2017). Lifecourse activity participation from early, mid, and later adulthood as determinants of cognitive aging: The Lothian Birth Cohort 1921. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(1), 25–37. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw124

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Habacha, H., Molinaro, C., & Dosseville, F. (2014). Effects of gender, imagery ability, and sports practice on the performance of a mental rotation task. The American Journal of Psychology, 127(3), 313–323. PubMed doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.127.3.0313

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havari, E., & Mazzonna, F. (2015). Can we trust older people’s statements on their childhood circumstances? Evidence from SHARELIFE. European Journal of Population, 31(3), 233–257. doi:10.1007/s10680-014-9332-y

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hébert, R., Bravo, G., & Girouard, D. (1992). Validation de l’adaptation française du modified mini-mental state (3MS). La Revue de gériatrie, 17(8), 443–450.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hertzog, C., Kramer, A.F., Wilson, R.S., & Lindenberger, U. (2009). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(1), 1–65. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, R.D., Storandt, M., & Malley, M. (1993). The impact of long-term exercise training on psychological function in older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 48(1), P12–P17. doi:10.1093/geronj/48.1.P12

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hillman, C.H., Motl, R.W., Pontifex, M.B., Posthuma, D., Stubbe, J.H., Boomsma, D.I., & de Geus, E.J.C. (2006). Physical activity and cognitive function in a cross-section of younger and older community-dwelling individuals. Health Psychology, 25(6), 678–687. PubMed doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.6.678

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Iuliano, E., di Cagno, A., Aquino, G., Fiorilli, G., Mignogna, P., Calcagno, G., & Di Costanzo, A. (2015). Effects of different types of physical activity on the cognitive functions and attention in older people: A randomized controlled study. Experimental Gerontology, 70, 105–110. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.exger.2015.07.008

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jäger, K., Schmidt, M., Conzelmann, A., & Roebers, C.M. (2015). The effects of qualitatively different acute physical activity interventions in real-world settings on executive functions in preadolescent children. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 9, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2015.05.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kalafat, M., Hugonot-Diener, L., & Poitrenaud, J. (2003). Standardisation et étalonnage français du « Mini Mental State »(MMS) version GRECO. Revue de neuropsychologie, 13(2), 209–236.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kåreholt, I., Lennartsson, C., Gatz, M., & Parker, M.G. (2011). Baseline leisure time activity and cognition more than two decades later. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26(1), 65–74. doi:10.1002/gps.2490

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kelly, M.E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B.A., Robertson, I.H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 16, 12–31. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.05.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kesse-Guyot, E., Andreeva, V.A., Lassale, C., Hercberg, S., & Galan, P. (2014). Clustering of midlife lifestyle behaviors and subsequent cognitive function: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health, 104(11), e170–e177. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302121

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kortte, K.B., Horner, M.D., & Windham, W.K. (2002). The trail making test, part B: Cognitive flexibility or ability to maintain set? Applied Neuropsychology, 9(2), 106–109. PubMed doi:10.1207/S15324826AN0902_5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kramer, A.F., Erickson, K.I., & Colcombe, S.J. (2006). Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain. Journal of Applied Physiology, 101(4), 1237–1242. PubMed doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00500.2006

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kriska, A.M., Knowler, W.C., LaPorte, R.E., Drash, A.L., Wing, R.R., Blair, S.N., … Kuller, L.H. (1990). Development of questionnaire to examine relationship of physical activity and diabetes in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care, 13(4), 401–411. PubMed doi:10.2337/diacare.13.4.401

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kriska, A.M., Sandler, R.B., Cauley, J.A., LaPorte, R.E., Horn, D.L., & Pambianco, G. (1988). The assessment of historical physical activity and its relation to adult bone parameters. American Journal of Epidemiology, 127, 1053–1063. PubMed doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114881

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Larson, E.B., Wang, L., Bowen, J., McCormick, W., Teri, L., Crane, P., & Kukull, W. (2006). Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. Annals of Internal Medicine, 144(2), 73–81. PubMed doi:10.7326/0003-4819-144-2-200601170-00004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Li, S.C., Lindenberger, U., Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P.B. (2004). Transformations in the couplings among intellectual abilities and constituent cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological Science, 15(3), 155–163. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503003.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Liu-Ambrose, T., Nagamatsu, L.S., Graf, P., Beattie, B.L., Ashe, M.C., & Handy, T.C. (2010). Resistance training and executive functions: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 170–178. PubMed doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.494

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Madden, D.J., Blumenthal, J.A., Allen, P.A., & Emery, C.F. (1989). Improving aerobic capacity in healthy older adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance. Psychology and Aging, 4(3), 307–320. PubMed doi:10.1037/0882-7974.4.3.307

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Middleton, L.E., Barnes, D.E., Lui, L.-Y., & Yaffe, K. (2010). Physical activity over the life course and its association with cognitive performance and impairment in old age: Life course physical activity and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 58(7), 1322–1326. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02903.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. PubMed doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Moering, R.G., Schinka, J.A., Mortimer, J.A., & Graves, A.B. (2004). Normative data for elderly African Americans for the Stroop color and word test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(1), 61–71. PubMed doi:10.1093/arclin/19.1.61

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nagamatsu, L.S., Chan, A., Davis, J.C., Beattie, B.L., Graf, P., Voss, M.W., … Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). Physical activity improves verbal and spatial memory in older adults with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. Journal of Aging Research, 2013, 1–10. doi:10.1155/2013/861893

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nagamatsu, L.S., Flicker, L., Kramer, A.F., Voss, M.W., Erickson, K.I., Hsu, C.L., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2014). Exercise is medicine, for the body and the brain. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(12), 943–944. PubMed doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-093224

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Naqvi, R., Liberman, D., Rosenberg, J., Alston, J., & Straus, S. (2013). Preventing cognitive decline in healthy older adults. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 185(10), 881–885. PubMed doi:10.1503/cmaj.121448

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Poitrenaud, J., & Moreaux, C. (1976). Rapports entre performances intellectuelles et maintien d’une activité professionnelle à un âge avancé. Population (French Edition), 31, 607–616. doi:10.2307/1530758

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Prakash, R.S., Voss, M.W., Erickson, K.I., & Kramer, A.F. (2015). Physical activity and cognitive vitality. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 769–797. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015249

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Renaud, M., Bherer, L., & Maquestiaux, F. (2010). A high level of physical fitness is associated with more efficient response preparation in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65(3), 317–322. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rouillard, M., Audiffren, M., Albinet, C., Ali Bahri, M., Garraux, G., & Collette, F. (2016). Contribution of four lifelong factors of cognitive reserve on late cognition in normal aging and Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39(2), 142–162. PubMed doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1207755

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rovio, S., Kareholt, I., Helkala, E., Viitanen, M., Winblad, B., Tuomilehto, J., … Kivipelto, M. (2005). Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurology, 4, 705–711. PubMed doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70198-8

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rovio, S., Spulber, G., Nieminen, L.J., Niskanen, E., Winblad, B., Tuomilehto, J., … Kivipelto, M. (2010). The effect of midlife physical activity on structural brain changes in the elderly. Neurobiology of Aging, 31(11), 1927–1936. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.10.007

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salthouse, T.A. (1992). What do adult age differences in the Digit Symbol Substitution Test reflect? Journal of Gerontology, 47(3), P121–P128. PubMed doi:10.1093/geronj/47.3.P121

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salthouse, T.A. (1993). Influence of working memory on adult age differences in matrix reasoning. British Journal of Psychology, 84(2), 171–199. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1993.tb02472.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salthouse, T.A. (2009). When does age-related cognitive decline begin? Neurobiology of Aging, 30(4), 507–514. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.09.023

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salthouse, T.A., Atkinson, T.M., & Berish, D.E. (2003). Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 132(4), 566–594. PubMed doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.566

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Simons, L.A., Simons, J., McCallum, J., & Friedlander, Y. (2006). Lifestyle factors and risk of dementia: Dubbo Study of the elderly. Medical Journal of Australia, 184(2), 68. PubMed

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ska, B., & Joanette, Y. (2006). Vieillissement normal et cognition. Médecine/Sciences, 22(3), 284–287. PubMed doi:10.1051/medsci/2006223284

  • Strasser, B., & Fuchs, D. (2015). Role of physical activity and diet on mood, behavior, and cognition. Neurology, Psychiatry & Brain Research, 21(3), 118–126. doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2015.07.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stroop, J.R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662. doi:10.1037/h0054651

  • Sumic, A., Michael, Y.L., Carlson, N.E., Howieson, D.B., & Kaye, J.A. (2007). Physical activity and the risk of dementia in oldest old. Journal of Aging and Health, 19, 242–259. PubMed doi:10.1177/0898264307299299

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Taylor-Piliae, R.E., Newell, K.A., Cherin, R., Lee, M.J., King, A.C., & Haskell, W.L. (2010). Effects of Tai Chi and Western exercise on physical and cognitive functioning in healthy community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging & Physical Activity, 18(3), 261–279. PubMed doi:10.1123/japa.18.3.261

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thibeau, S., McFall, G.P., Wiebe, S.A., Anstey, K.J., & Dixon, R.A. (2016). Genetic factors moderate everyday physical activity effects on executive functions in aging: Evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. Neuropsychology, 30(1), 6–17. PubMed doi:10.1037/neu0000217

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Van Boxtel, M.P.J., Ten Tusscher, M.P.M., Metsemakers, J.F.M., Willems, B., & Jolles, J. (2001). Visual determinants of reduced performance on the Stroop color-word test in normal aging individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(5), 620–627. PubMed doi:10.1076/jcen.23.5.620.1245

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Van Gelder, B.M., Tijhuis, M.A.R., Kalmijn, S., Giampaoli, S., Nissinen, A., & Kromhout, D. (2004). Physical activity in relation to cognitive decline in elderly men The FINE Study. Neurology, 63(12), 2316–2321. PubMed doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000147474.29994.35

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Verghese, J., Lipton, R.B., Katz, M.J., Hall, C.B., Derby, C.A., Kuslansky, G., … Buschke, H. (2003). Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 2508–2516. PubMed doi:10.1056/NEJMoa022252

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Voss, M.W., Prakash, R.S., Erickson, K.I., Basak, C., Chaddock, L., Kim, J.S., … Kramer, A.F. (2010). Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise training in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2, 32. PubMed doi:10.3389/fnagi.2010.00032

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vuillemin, A., Oppert, J.-M., Guillemin, F., Essermeant, L., Fontvieille, A.-M., Galan, P., … Hercberg, S. (2000). Self-administered questionnaire compared with interview to assess past-year physical activity. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32(6), 1119–1124. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005768-200006000-00013

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—3rd Edition (WAIS-3R). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.

  • Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (WASI). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.

  • Weuve, J., Kang, J.H., Manson, J.E., Breteler, M.M., Ware, J.H., & Grodstein, F. (2004). Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA, 292(12), 1454–1461. PubMed doi:10.1001/jama.292.12.1454

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wilson, R.S., Scherr, P.A., Schneider, J.A., Tang, Y., & Bennett, D.A. (2007). Relation of cognitive activity to risk of developing Alzheimer disease. Neurology, 69(20), 1911–1920. PubMed doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000271087.67782.cb

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yaffe, K., Barnes, D., Nevitt, M., Lui, L.Y., & Covinsky, K. (2001). A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: Women who walk. Archives of Internal Medicine, 161(14), 1703–1708. PubMed doi:10.1001/archinte.161.14.1703

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Young, J., Angevaren, M., Rusted, J., & Tabet, N. (2015). Aerobic exercise to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (4), CD005381. PubMed doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005381.pub4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 3738 500 29
Full Text Views 52 8 2
PDF Downloads 33 7 0