Teammate Relationships, Loneliness, and the Motivational and Well-Being Experiences of Adolescent Athletes

in Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology

Click name to view affiliation

Christine E. Pacewicz Saginaw Valley State University

Search for other papers by Christine E. Pacewicz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
and
Alan L. Smith Michigan State University

Search for other papers by Alan L. Smith in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2021-0015
Keywords:
athlete burnout; athlete engagement; peers; social relationships; youth sport
First Published Online:
17 Sep 2021
In Print:
Volume 16: Issue 1
Page Range:
3–22
Restricted access

Interpersonal exchanges may contribute to athletes’ motivational and well-being experiences through their contribution to athletes’ feelings of loneliness. Loneliness is understudied in sport, yet it is potentially salient in connecting social relationships with motivational processes and well-being of athletes. The purpose of the current research was to examine (a) the association of aspects of teammate relationships with athletes’ perceptions of burnout and engagement and (b) whether loneliness explained these associations. Adolescent athletes (N = 279) completed established measures of teammate relationships, loneliness, burnout, and engagement. The mediational model was invariant between boys and girls. Loneliness mediated the relationship of social support (β = −0.14, 0.10), corumination (β = 0.09, −0.06), and appraisal of peer rejection (β = 0.11, −0.08) with burnout and engagement, respectively. Continued examination of athletes’ loneliness will extend understanding of athletes’ motivational and well-being experiences and inform the promotion of adaptive sport experiences.

Pacewicz is with the Department of Kinesiology, Saginaw Valley State University, University Center, MI, USA. Smith is with the Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.

Pacewicz (cpacewic@svsu.edu) is corresponding author.
  • Collapse
  • Expand

Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology

Cover Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology

  • Asher, S.R., Hymel, S., & Wheeler, V.A. (1984). Loneliness in children. Child Development, 55(4), 1456–1464. doi:10.2307/1130015

  • Asher, S.R., & Paquette, J.A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(3), 75–78. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01233

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Asher, S.R., & Wheeler, V.A. (1985). Children’s loneliness: A comparison of rejected and neglected peer status. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(4), 500–505. PubMed ID: 4031205 doi:10.1037/0022-006X.53.4.500

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bandalos, D.L., & Finney, S.J. (2001). Item parceling issues in structural equation modeling. In G.A. Marcoulides & R.E. Schumacker (Eds.), New developments and techniques in structural equation modeling (pp. 269–275). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baumeister, R.F., & Leary, M.R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. PubMed ID: 7777651 doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bianco, T., & Eklund, R.C. (2001). Conceptual considerations for social support research in sport and exercise settings: The case of sport injury. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 23(2), 85–107. doi:10.1123/jsep.23.2.85

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bloom, G.A., Loughead, T.M., & Newin, J. (2008). Team building for youth sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, & Dance, 79(9), 44–47. doi:10.1080/07303084.2008.10598246

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bryant, F.B., & Satorra, A. (2012). Principles and practice of scaled difference chi-square testing. Structural Equation Modeling, 19(3), 372–398. doi:10.1080/10705511.2012.687671

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Burgess, K.B., Ladd, G.W., Kochenderfer, B.J., Lambert, S.F., & Birch, S.H. (1999). Loneliness during early childhood: The role of interpersonal behaviors and relationships. In K.J. Rotenberg & S. Hymel (Eds.), Loneliness in childhood and adolescence (pp. 109–134). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cheung, G.W., & Rensvold, R.G. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Curran, T., Hill, A.P., Hall, H.K., & Jowett, G.E. (2014). Perceived coach behaviors and athletes’ engagement and disaffection in youth sport: The mediating role of the psychological needs. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 45, 559–580. https://doi.org/10.7352/IJSP2014.45.559

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Curran, T., Hill, A.P., Hall, H.K., & Jowett, G.E. (2015). Relationships between coach-created motivational climate and athlete engagement in youth sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 37(2), 193–198. PubMed ID: 25996109 doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0203

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davidson, C.L., DeMond, M.G., Byrd-Craven, J., Mills, A.C., Judah, M.R., & Lechner, W.V. (2014). Psychometric properties of the Co-Rumination Questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 70, 171–175. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013a). Areas of worklife and the athlete burnout-engagement relationship. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25(2), 180–196. doi:10.1080/10413200.2012.705414

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2013b). Teammate social support, burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(2), 258–265. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.10.009

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeFreese, J.D., & Smith, A.L. (2014). Athlete social support, negative social interactions, and psychological health across a competitive sport season. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 36(6), 619–630. PubMed ID: 25602144 doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0040

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deutsch, M. (2014). Cooperation, competition, and conflict. In P.T. Coleman, M. Deutsch, & E.C. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (pp. 3–28). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass/Wiley.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Finney, S.J., & DiStefano, C. (2013). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G.R. Hancock & R.O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (2nd ed., pp. 439–492). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing Inc.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gould, D. (2019). The current youth sport landscape: Identifying critical research issues. Kinesiology Review, 8(3), 150–161. doi:10.1123/kr.2019-0034

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gould, D., Udry, E., Tuffey, S., & Loehr, J. (1996). Burnout in competitive junior tennis players: I. A quantitative psychological assessment. The Sport Psychologist, 10(4), 322–340. doi:10.1123/tsp.10.4.322

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gustafsson, H., Hassmén, P., Kenttä, G., & Johansson, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis of burnout in elite Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(6), 800–816. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.11.004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Haugen, T., Säfvenbom, R., & Ommundsen, Y. (2013). Sport participation and loneliness in adolescents: The mediating role of perceived social competence. Current Psychology, 32(2), 203–216. doi:10.1007/s12144-013-9174-5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heinrich, L.M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695–718. PubMed ID: 16952717 doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hemphill, M.A., Janke, E.M., Gordon, B., & Farrar, H. (2018). Restorative youth sports: An applied model for resolving conflicts and building positive relationships. Journal of Youth Development, 13(3), 76–96. doi:10.5195/JYD.2018.603

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hodge, K., Lonsdale, C., Jackson, S.A. (2009). Athlete engagement in elite sport: An exploratory investigation of antecedents and consequences. The Sport Psychologist, 23(2), 186–202. doi:10.1123/tsp.23.2.186

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Holt, N.L., Knight, C.J., & Zukiwski, P. (2012). Female athletes’ perceptions of teammate conflict in sport: Implications for sport psychology consultants. The Sport Psychologist, 26(1), 135–154. doi:10.1123/tsp.26.1.135

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Jackson, S.A. (2007). Athlete engagement: II. Development and initial validation of the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 471–492.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Raedeke, T. (2007). Athlete engagement: I. A qualitative investigation of relevance and dimensions. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 451–470.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Muthén, L.K., & Muthén, B.O. (1998–2017). Mplus User’s Guide (7th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

  • Newsom, J.T., Rook, K.S., Nishishiba, M., Sorkin, D.H., & Mahan, T.L. (2005). Understanding the relative importance of positive and negative social exchanges: Examining specific domains and appraisals. The Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 60(6), 304–312. doi:10.1093/geronb/60.6.P304

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pacewicz, C.E., Mellano, K.T., & Smith, A.L. (2019). A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social constructs and athlete burnout. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 43, 155–164. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.02.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Page, R.M., Frey, J., Talbert, R., & Falk, C. (1992). Children’s feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction: Relationship to measures of physical fitness and activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11(3), 211–219. doi:10.1123/jtpe.11.3.211

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Page, R.M., & Page, T.S. (1994). Adolescent loneliness linked to low physical fitness and physical inactivity. Wellness Perspectives, 10, 56–62.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Partridge, J.A., & Knapp, B.A. (2016). Mean girls: Adolescent female athletes and peer conflict in sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28(1), 113–127. doi:10.1080/10413200.2015.1076088

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Peplau, L.A., & Perlman, D. (1982). Perspectives on loneliness. In L.A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 1–18). New York, NY: Wiley.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Podlog, L., Gustafsson, H., Skoog, T., Gao, Z., Westin, M., Werner, S., & Alricsson, M. (2015). Need satisfaction, motivation, and engagement among high performance youth athletes: A multiple mediation analysis. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13(4), 415–433. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2014.999346

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raedeke, T.D. (1997). Is athlete burnout more than just stress? A sport commitment perspective. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19(4), 396–417. doi:10.1123/jsep.19.4.396

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2001). Development and preliminary validation of an athlete burnout measure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 23(4), 281–306. PubMed ID: 28682196 doi:10.1123/jsep.23.4.281

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2004). Coping resources and athlete burnout: An examination of stress mediated and moderation hypotheses. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(4), 525–541. doi:10.1123/jsep.26.4.525

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raedeke, T.D., & Smith, A.L. (2009). The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

  • Rees, T., & Hardy, L. (2000). An investigation of the social support experiences of high-level sports performers. The Sport Psychologist, 14(4), 327–347. doi:10.1123/tsp.14.4.327

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rose, A.J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73(6), 1830−1843. PubMed ID: 12487497 doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00509

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rose, A.J., Carlson, W., & Waller, E.M. (2007). Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: Considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1019–1031. PubMed ID: 17605532 doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.1019

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rose, A.J., Schwartz-Mette, R.A., Glick, G.C., Smith, R.L., & Luebbe, A.M. (2014). An observational study of co-rumination in adolescent friendships. Developmental Psychology, 50(9), 2199–2209. doi:10.1037/a0037465

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rubin, K.H., Bukowski, W., & Parker, J.G. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. In W. Damon, R.M. Lerner, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3, Social emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 571–645). New York, NY: Wiley.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sandstrom, M.J., & Coie, J.D. (1999). A developmental perspective on peer rejection: Mechanisms of stability and change. Child Development, 70(4), 955–966. PubMed ID: 10446728 doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00069

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sarason, I.G., Sarason, B.R., Shearin, E.N., & Pierce, G.R. (1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4(4), 497–510. doi:10.1177/0265407587044007

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P.M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243–248. PubMed ID: 20640194 doi:10.1007/s11336-009-9135-y

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, A.L., Gustafsson, H., Hassmén, P. (2010). Peer motivational climate and burnout perceptions of adolescent athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 453–460. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.05.007

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, A.L., Pacewicz, C.E., & Raedeke, T. (2019). Athlete burnout in sport and physical activity. In Horn, T.S., & Smith, A.L. (Eds.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology (4th ed., pp. 409−424). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, A.L., & Ullrich-French, S. (2020). Peers and the sport experience. In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (4th ed., pp. 410–428). New York, NY: Wiley.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. Norton.

  • Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

  • Udry, E., Gould, D., Bridges, D., & Tuffey, S. (1997). People helping people? Examining the social ties of athletes coping with burnout and injury stress. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19(4), 368–395. doi:10.1123/jsep.19.4.368

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Weiss, M.R., Smith, A.L., & Theeboom, M. (1996). “That’s what friends are for”: Children’s and teenagers’ perceptions of peer relationships in the sport domain. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18(4), 347–379. doi:10.1123/jsep.18.4.347

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Weiss, M.R., & Smith, A.L. (1999). Quality of youth sport friendships: Measurement development and validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21(2), 145–166. doi:10.1123/jsep.21.2.145

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Weiss, M.R., & Smith, A.L. (2002). Friendship quality in youth sport: Relationship to age, gender, and motivation variables. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24(4), 420–437. doi:10.1123/jsep.24.4.420

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Woodhouse, S.S., Dykas, M.J., & Cassidy, J. (2012). Loneliness and peer relations in adolescence. Social Development, 21(2), 273–293. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00611.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 4220 1441 132
Full Text Views 376 303 64
PDF Downloads 174 75 11