The Ultimatum Game in the College Football Rivalry Context

in Journal of Sport Management

Click name to view affiliation

Brian M. Mills University of Florida

Search for other papers by Brian M. Mills in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Scott Tainsky Wayne State University

Search for other papers by Scott Tainsky in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
B. Christine Green University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Search for other papers by B. Christine Green in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
, and
Becca Leopkey University of Georgia

Search for other papers by Becca Leopkey in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2017-0094
Keywords:
economics; fan behavior; rivalry
In Print:
Volume 32: Issue 1
Page Range:
11–23
Restricted access

Sport rivalries have been shown to increase the emotional intensity of fans, which not only can lead to higher levels of interest and involvement but can also escalate negative fan behaviors based on in-group/out-group distinctions. This study represents the first use of an experimental economics approach in sport management to understand the behaviors of rival sports fans. Specifically, the classic behavioral economics experiment, the ultimatum game, was used to test the willingness of rival fans to make their out-group counterparts worse off. Using a $10 stake, proposers offered approximately 8.7% less to rival fans than to in-group fans, while the probability that a responder accepted an offer—holding constant offer size—was approximately 7% lower when the proposer was a rival. Team identification had no effect on offers or acceptances. Implications for understanding rivalry in sport are discussed, and advantages of behavioral economics for sport management research are noted.

Mills is with the Department of Tourism, Recreation & Sport Management, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Tainsky is with the Department of Management and Information Systems, Mike Illitch School of Business, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI. Green is with the Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL. Leopkey is with the Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Address author correspondence to Brian M. Mills at bmmillsy@hhp.ufl.edu.
  • Collapse
  • Expand

Journal of Sport Management

Cover Journal of Sport Management

  • Andersen, S., Ertac, S., Gneezy, U., Hoffman, M., & List, J.A. (2011). Stakes matter in ultimatum games. The American Economic Review, 101, 3427–3439. doi:10.1257/aer.101.7.3427

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Associated Press. (2002, November 25). College football; fan violence erupts during victory celebrations. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/25/sports/college-football-fan-violence-erupts-during-victory-celebrations.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Azar, O.H., Lahav, Y., & Voslinsky, A. (2015). Beliefs in social behavior in a multi-period ultimatum game. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 29. PubMed doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00029

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berendt, J., & Uhrich, S. (2016). Enemies with benefits: The dual role of rivalry in shaping sports fans’ identity. European Sport Management Quarterly, 16, 613–634. doi:10.1080/16184742.2016.1188842

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bergkvist, L. (2012). The flipside of the sponsorship coin: Do you still buy the beer when the brewer underwrites a rival team? Journal of Advertising Research, 52, 65–73. doi:10.2501/JAR-52-1-065-073

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blount, S. (1995). When social outcomes aren’t fair: The effect of causal attributions on preferences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 63(2), 131–144. doi:10.1006/obhd.1995.1068

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bornstein, G., & Yaniv, I. (1998). Individual and group behavior in the ultimatum game: Are groups more “rational” players? Experimental Economics, 1, 101–108. doi:10.1023/A:1009914001822

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Branscombe, N., & Wann, D.L. (1992). Role of identification with a group, arousal, categorization processes, and self-esteem in sports spectator aggression. Human Relations, 45, 1013–1033. doi:10.1177/001872679204501001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cameron, L.A. (1999). Raising the stakes in the ultimatum game: Experimental evidence from Indonesia. Economic Inquiry, 37, 47–59. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.1999.tb01415.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Charness, G., & Gneezy, U. (2008). What's in a name? Anonymity and social distance in dictator and ultimatum games. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 68, 29–35.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chuah, S.H., Hoffman, R., Jones, M., & Williams, G. (2007). Do cultures clash? Evidence from cross-national ultimatum game experiments. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 64, 35–48. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.04.006

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cialdini, R.B., & Richardson, K.D. (1980). Two indirect tactics of impression management: Basking and blasting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406–415. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.406

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cikara, M., & Fiske, S. (2013). Their pain, our pleasure: Stereotype content and schadenfreude. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1299, 52–59. PubMed doi:10.1111/nyas.12179

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Croson, R., & Buchan, N. (1999). Gender and culture: International experimental evidence from trust games. The American Economic Review, 89, 386–391. doi:10.1257/aer.89.2.386

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dalakas, V., & Melancon, J. (2012). Fan identification, schadenfreude toward hated rivals, and the mediating effects of Importance of Winning Index (IWIN). Journal of Services Marketing, 26, 51–59. doi:10.1108/08876041211199724

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davies, F., Veloutsou, C., & Costa, A. (2006). Investigating the influence of a joint sponsorship of rival teams on supporter attitudes and brand preferences. Journal of Services Marketing, 26, 51–59.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2003). The nature of human altruism. Nature, 425, 785–791. PubMed doi:10.1038/nature02043

  • Gil-White, F.J. (2003). Ultimatum game with an ethnicity manipulation: Results from Khovdiin Bulgan Sum, Mongolia. In J. Henrich, R. Boyd, S. Bowles, H. Gintis, E. Fehr, & C. Camerer (Eds.), Foundations of human sociality: Ethnography and experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Griffin, J., Nickerson, D., & Wozniak, A. (2012). Racial differences in inequality aversion: Evidence from real world respondents in the ultimatum game. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 84, 600–617. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2012.09.010

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Güth, W., Schmidt, C., & Sutter, M. (2007). Bargaining outside the lab—A newspaper experiment of a three-person ultimatum game. The Economic Journal, 117, 449–469. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2007.02025.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Halevy, N., Weisel, O., & Bornstein, G. (2012). In-group love and out-group hate in repeated interaction between groups. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(2), 188–195. doi:10.1002/bdm.726

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havard, C.T. (2014). Glory out of reflected failure: The examination of how rivalry affects sports fans. Sport Management Review, 17, 243–253. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2013.09.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havard, C.T., Eddy, T., & Ryan, T. (2016). Examining the impact of team identification and gender on rival perceptions and consumption intentions of intercollegiate athletics fans. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 8(2), 33–49.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havard, C.T., Gray, D.P., Gould, J., Sharp, L.A., & Schaffer, J.J. (2013). Development and validation of the sport rivalry fan perception scale (SRFPS). Journal of Sport Behavior, 36, 45–65.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havard, C.T., Reams, L., & Gray, D.P. (2013). Perceptions of highly identified fans regarding rival teams in U.S. intercollegiate football and men’s basketball. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 14, 116–132. doi:10.1504/IJSMM.2013.060628

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Havard, C.T., Wann, D.L., & Ryan, T. (2013). Investigating the impact of conference realignment on rivalry in intercollegiate athletics. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 22, 224–234.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heere, B., & James, J.D. (2007). Stepping outside the lines: Developing a multi-dimensional team identity scale based on social identity theory. Sport Management Review, 10(1), 65–91. doi:10.1016/S1441-3523(07)70004-9

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Henrich, J. (2000). Does culture matter in economic behavior? Ultimatum game bargaining among the Machiguenga of the Peruvian Amazon. The American Economic Review, 90, 973–979. doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.973

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., & McElreath, R. (2001). In search of homo economicus: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. The American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 91, 73–78. doi:10.1257/aer.91.2.73

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hoffman, E., McCabe, K.A., & Smith, V.L. (1996). On expectations and the monetary stakes in ultimatum games. International Journal of Game Theory, 25(3), 289–301. doi:10.1007/BF02425259

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hoffman, R., & Tee, J.Y. (2006). Adolescent-adult interactions and culture in the ultimatum game. Journal of Economic Psychology, 27, 98–116. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2005.06.014

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Humphreys, B.R. (2015, August 27). The future of behavioral economics in sports economics research. Keynote presentation at the European Sports Economics Association Conference, Zurich, Switzerland.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.

  • Kimble, C.E., & Cooper, B.P. (1992). Association and dissociation by football fans. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 303–309. doi:10.2466/pms.1992.75.1.303

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, M.J. (1985). From rivalry to hostility among sports fans. Quest, 37, 38–49.

  • Lemke, R.J., Leonard, M., & Tlhokwane, K. (2010). Estimating attendance at Major League Baseball games for the 2007 season. Journal of Sports Economics, 11, 316–348. doi:10.1177/1527002509337212

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lenor, S., Lenten, L.J.A., & McKenzie, J. (2016). Rivalry effects and unbalanced schedule optimisation in the Australian Football League. Review of Industrial Organization, 49, 43–69. doi:10.1007/s11151-015-9495-7

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lock, D., Funk, D.C., Doyle, J.P., & McDonald, H. (2014). Examining the longitudinal structure, stability, and dimensional interrelationships of team identification. Journal of Sport Management, 28, 119–135. doi:10.1123/jsm.2012-0191

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loewenstein, G., Thompson, L., & Bazerman, M. (1989). Social utility and decision making in interpersonal contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(3), 426–441. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.3.426

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Luellen, T., & Wann, D. (2010). Rival salience and sport team identification. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19, 97–106.

  • Millward, P. (2009). Glasgow Rangers supporters in the city of Manchester: The degeneration of a ‘fan party’ into a ‘hooligan riot’. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 44(4), 381–398. doi:10.1177/1012690209344658

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mueller, T., & Sutherland, J. (2010). Heroes and villains: Increasing fan involvement in pursuit of “The Elusive Fan”. Journal of Sport Administration & Supervision, 2(1), 20–30.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Murphy, D. (2012, October 29). A 21-year-old was face down in water after being knocked unconscious in a Georgia-Florida fan fight. Sports Grid. Retrieved from http://www.sportsgrid.com/ncaa-football/a-21-year-old-was-face-down-in-water-after-being-knocked-unconscious-in-a-georgia-florida-fan-fight-video/

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • National Collegiate Athletic Association. (n.d.). NCAA core values. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/about/ncaa-core-values

  • Oosterbeek, H., Sloof, R., & Van de Kuilen, G. (2004). Cultural differences in ultimatum game experiments: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Experimental Economics, 7, 171–188. doi:10.1023/B:EXEC.0000026978.14316.74

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Paul, R.J., & Weinbach, A.P. (2013). Determinants of dynamic pricing premiums in Major League Baseball. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 22, 152–165.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Phillips-Melancon, J., & Dalakas, V. (2014). Brand rivalry and consumers’ schadenfreude: The case of apple. Services Marketing Quarterly, 35(2), 173–186. doi:10.1080/15332969.2014.885370

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Price, D., & Sen, K. (2003). The demand for game day attendance in college football: An analysis of the 1997 Division 1-A season. Managerial and Decision Economics, 24, 35–46. doi:10.1002/mde.1100

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Quintanar, S.M., Deck, C., Reyes, J.A., & Sarangi, S. (2015). You are close to your rival and everybody hates a winner: A study of rivalry in college football. Economic Inquiry, 53, 1908–1918. doi:10.1111/ecin.12215

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roth, A.E., Prasnikar, V., Okuno-Fujiwara, M., & Zamir, S. (1991). Bargaining and market behavior in Jerusalem, Ljubljana, Pittsburgh, and Tokyo: An experimental study. The American Economic Review, 81, 1068–1095.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Saad, G., & Gill, T. (2001). The effect of a recipient’s gender in a modified dictator game. Applied Economics Letters, 8(7), 463–466. doi:10.1080/13504850010005260

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sanford, K., & Scott, F. (2016). Assessing the intensity of sports rivalries using data from secondary market transactions. Journal of Sports Economics, 17, 159–174. doi:10.1177/1527002514527112

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, R.A., & Schwartz, N. (2003). Language, social comparison, and college football: Is your school less similar to the rival school than the rival school is to your school? Communication Monographs, 70(4), 351–360. doi:10.1080/0363775032000179142

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, V.L. (2007). Rationality in economics: Constructivist and ecological forms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

  • Szymanski, S., & Winfree, J.A. (2017). On the optimal realignment of a contest: The case of college football. Economic Inquiry,. doi:10.1111/ecin.12493

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behavior. Social Science Information, 13(2), 65–93. doi:10.1177/053901847401300204

  • Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availaility: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207–232.

  • Tyler, B.D., & Cobbs, J. (2016). All rivals are not equal: Clarifying misrepresentations and discerning three core properties of rivalry. Journal of Sport Management, 31, 1–14. doi:10.1123/jsm.2015-0371

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wann, D.L. (2006). Understanding the positive social psychological benefits of sport team identification: The team identification-social psychological health model. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 10, 272–296. doi:10.1037/1089-2699.10.4.272

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wann, D.L., & Grieve, F. (2005). Biased evaluations of in-group and out-group spectator behavior at sporting events: The importance of team identification and threats to social identity. Journal of Social Psychology, 145, 531–546. PubMed doi:10.3200/SOCP.145.5.531-546

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wann, D.L., Peterson, R.R., Cothran, C., & Dykes, M. (1999). Sport fan aggression and anonymity: The importance of team identification. Social Behavior and Personality, 27, 297–301. doi:10.2224/sbp.1999.27.3.297

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wann, D.L., & Waddill, P.J. (2013). Predicting sport fans’ willingness to consider anonymous acts of aggression: Importance of team identification and fan dysfunction. In C. Mohiyeddini (Ed.), Psychology of sports. Hauppage, NY: Nova.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wear, H., Heere, B., & Clopton, A. (2016). Are they wearing their pride on their sleeve? Examining the impact of team and university identification upon brand equity. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 25(2), 79–89.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Word, R. (1986, October 23). Dooley, Hall warn against fan drinking, violence. Gainesville Sun, p. 5C.

  • Zaharia, N., Biscaia, R., Gray, D., & Stotlar, D. (2016). No more “good” intentions: Purchase behaviors in sponsorship. Journal of Sport Management, 30, 162–175. doi:10.1123/jsm.2015-0347

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 3326 669 46
Full Text Views 248 65 6
PDF Downloads 126 43 0