Race, Cardiovascular Disease, and Vascular Health

in Kinesiology Review

Click name to view affiliation

Michael D. Brown College of Education, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Search for other papers by Michael D. Brown in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
and
Dulce H. Gomez College of Education, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Search for other papers by Dulce H. Gomez in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2021-0061
Keywords:
heart disease; risk factors; health disparities; allostatic load; racism
First Published Online:
24 Dec 2021
In Print:
Volume 11: Issue 1
Page Range:
43–53
Restricted access

Non-Hispanic Blacks (NHB) have a greater prevalence cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CVD risk factors, and they appear at an earlier age compared with non-Hispanic Whites. Impaired vascular function is a major contributing factor to CVD risk, and NHB have impaired vascular function compared with non-Hispanic Whites. In addition to the known biological factors, socioeconomic and environmental determinants of CVD are particularly important for NHB. Chronic exposure to racial discrimination (racialized stress) throughout the lifespan represents an allostatic load whereby the stress-response mechanism is activated repeatedly. This activates the central nervous system and other physiological systems that can cause CVD. High allostatic scores are associated with being NHB or Hispanic. The purpose of this review article is to describe the racial health disparities in the CVDs, the social determinants of CVD disparities, and how racial discrimination impacts them.

  • Collapse
  • Expand

Kinesiology Review

Cover Kinesiology Review

  • Abel, J.R., & Deitz, R. (2016). Underemployment in the early careers of college graduates following the great recession. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Working Paper 22654. http://www.nber.org/papers/w22654

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Adefurin, A., Ghimire, L.V., Kohli, U., Muszkat, M., Sofowora, G.G., Paranjape, S.Y., Stein, C.M., & Kurnik, D. (2013). Blacks have a greater sensitivity to alpha1-adrenoceptor-mediated venoconstriction compared with whites. Hypertension, 61(4), 915–920. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.00854

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Adler, N.E., & Ostrove, J.M. (1999). Socioeconomic status and health: What we know and what we don’t. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08101.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Adler, N.E., & Stewart, J. (2010). Health disparities across the lifespan: Meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05337.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Allison, M.A., Ho, E., Denenberg, J.O., Langer, R.D., Newman, A.B., Fabsitz, R.R., & Criqui, M.H. (2007). Ethnic-specific prevalence of peripheral arterial disease in the United States. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(4), 328–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2006.12.010

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Association for the Study of Higher Education. (2015). Systemic racism in higher education (1st ed.).

  • Bahrami, H., Kronmal, R., Bluemke, D.A., Olson, J., Shea, S., Liu, K., Burke, G.L., & Lima, J.A. (2008). Differences in the incidence of congestive heart failure by ethnicity: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(19), 2138–2145. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.19.2138

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bao, W., Threefoot, S.A., Srinivasan, S.R., & Berenson, G.S. (1995). Essential hypertension predicted by tracking of elevated blood pressure from childhood to adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Hypertension, 8(7), 657–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/0895-7061(95)00116-7

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barker, D.J. (2004). The developmental origins of chronic adult disease. Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 93(446), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2004.tb00236.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Benjamin, E.J., Muntner, P., Alonso, A., Bittencourt, M.S., Callaway, C.W., Carson, A.P., Chamberlain, A.M., Chang, A.R., Cheng, S., Das, S.R., Delling, F.N., Djousse, L., Elkind, M.S.V., Ferguson, J.F., Fornage, M., Jordan, L.C., Khan, S.S., Kissela, B.M., Knutson, K.L., … on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. (2019). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 139(10), e56–e528. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000659

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bhatnagar, A. (2017). Environmental determinants of cardiovascular disease. Circulation Research, 121(2), 162–180. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.306458

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bibbins-Domingo, K., Pletcher, M.J., Lin, F., Vittinghoff, E., Gardin, J.M., Arynchyn, A., Lewis, C.E., Williams, O.D., & Hulley, S.B. (2009). Racial differences in incident heart failure among young adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(12), 1179–1190. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0807265

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Black, L.L., Johnson, R., & VanHoose, L. (2015). The relationship between perceived racism/discrimination and health among black American women: A review of the literature from 2003 to 2013. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 2(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-014-0043-1

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bonow, R.O., Grant, A.O., & Jacobs, A.K. (2005). The cardiovascular state of the union: Confronting healthcare disparities. Circulation, 111(10), 1205–1207. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000160705.97642.92

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Borrell, L.N., Rodriguez-Alvarez, E., & Dallo, F.J. (2020). Racial/ethnic inequities in the associations of allostatic load with all-cause and cardiovascular-specific mortality risk in U.S. adults. PLoS One, 15(2), e0228336. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228336

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braveman, P.A., Cubbin, C., Egerter, S., Williams, D.R., & Pamuk, E. (2010). Socioeconomic disparities in health in the United States: What the patterns tell us. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S186–S196. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.166082

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brewer, L.C., Carson, K.A., Williams, D.R., Allen, A., Jones, C.P., & Cooper, L.A. (2013). Association of race consciousness with the patient-physician relationship, medication adherence, and blood pressure in urban primary care patients. American Journal of Hypertension, 26(11), 1346–1352. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpt116

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brewer, L.C., & Cooper, L.A. (2014). Race, discrimination, and cardiovascular disease. Virtual Mentor, 16(6), 455–460. PubMed ID: 25090666

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brothers, R.M., Fadel, P.J., & Keller, D.M. (2019). Racial disparities in cardiovascular disease risk: Mechanisms of vascular dysfunction. American Journal of Physiology Heart and Circulatory, 317(4), H777–H789. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00126.2019

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brunner, E.J., Hemingway, H., Walker, B.R., Page, M., Clarke, P., Juneja, M., Shipley, M.J., Kumari, M., Andrew, R., Seckl, J.R., Papadopoulos, A., Checkley, S., Rumley, A., Lowe, G.D., Stansfeld, S.A., & Marmot, M.G. (2002). Adrenocortical, autonomic, and inflammatory causes of the metabolic syndrome: Nested case-control study. Circulation, 106(21), 2659–2665. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000038364.26310.BD

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Calhoun, D.A., Mutinga, M.L., Collins, A.S., Wyss, J.M., & Oparil, S. (1993). Normotensive blacks have heightened sympathetic response to cold pressor test. Hypertension, 22(6), 801–805. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.22.6.801

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Calhoun, D.A., Mutinga, M.L., Wyss, J.M., & Oparil, S. (1994). Muscle sympathetic nervous system activity in black and Caucasian hypertensive subjects. Journal of Hypertension, 12(11), 1291–1296. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004872-199411000-00012

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Campbell, C., Greenberg, R., Mankikar, D., & Ross, R.D. (2016). A case study of environmental injustice: The failure in flint. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(10), 951. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13100951

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Campia, U., Cardillo, C., & Panza, J.A. (2004). Ethnic differences in the vasoconstrictor activity of endogenous endothelin-1 in hypertensive patients. Circulation, 109(25), 3191–3195. PubMed ID: 15148269 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000130590.24107.D3

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Campia, U., Choucair, W.K., Bryant, M.B., Waclawiw, M.A., Cardillo, C., & Panza, J.A. (2002). Reduced endothelium-dependent and -independent dilation of conductance arteries in African Americans. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 40(4), 754–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(02)02015-6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cardinal, B.J. (2016). Toward a greater understanding of the syndemic nature of hypokinetic diseases. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 14(2), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesf.2016.07.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cardinal, B.J., & Cardinal, M.K. (2000). Preparticipation physical activity screening within a racially diverse, older adult sample: Comparison of the original and Revised Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaires. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(3), 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608910

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Vital signs: Avoidable deaths from heart disease, stroke, and hypertensive disease—United States, 2001–2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 62(35), 721–727. PubMed ID: 24005227

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chrousos, G.P. (1995). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. New England Journal of Medicine, 332(20), 1351–1363. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199505183322008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cosselman, K.E., Navas-Acien, A., & Kaufman, J.D. (2015). Environmental factors in cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 12(11), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2015.152

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cunliffe, V.T. (2016). The epigenetic impacts of social stress: How does social adversity become biologically embedded? Epigenomics, 8(12), 1653–1669. https://doi.org/10.2217/epi-2016-0075

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeLoach, S., Huan, Y., Daskalakis, C., & Falkner, B. (2010). Endothelin-1 response to glucose and insulin among African Americans. Journal of the American Society of Hypertension, 4(5), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jash.2010.07.004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Delp, M.D., Behnke, B.J., Spier, S.A., Wu, G., & Muller-Delp, J.M. (2008). Ageing diminishes endothelium-dependent vasodilatation and tetrahydrobiopterin content in rat skeletal muscle arterioles. Journal of Physiology, 586(4), 1161–1168. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.147686

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeNavas-Walt, C., & Proctor, B.D. (2015). U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60–252, Income and Poverty in the United States: 2014. US Government Printing Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deo, S.H., Holwerda, S.W., Keller, D.M., & Fadel, P.J. (2015). Elevated peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived superoxide production in healthy young black men. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 308(5), H548–H552. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00784.2014

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Doom, J.R., Mason, S.M., Suglia, S.F., & Clark, C.J. (2017). Pathways between childhood/adolescent adversity, adolescent socioeconomic status, and long-term cardiovascular disease risk in young adulthood. Social Science & Medicine, 188, 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.06.044

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Duck, M.M., & Hoffman, R.P. (2007). Impaired endothelial function in healthy African-American adolescents compared with Caucasians. Journal of Pediatrics, 150(4), 400–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.12.034

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dupre, M.E., George, L.K., Liu, G., & Peterson, E.D. (2012). The cumulative effect of unemployment on risks for acute myocardial infarction. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172(22), 1731–1737. https://doi.org/10.1001/2013.jamainternmed.447

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ergul, A., Tackett, R.L., & Puett, D. (1999). Distribution of endothelin receptors in saphenous veins of African Americans: Implications of racial differences. Journal of Cardiovascualr Pharmacology, 34(3), 327–332. PubMed ID: 10470988 https://doi.org/10.1097/00005344-199909000-00002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Evans, R.R., Phillips, B.G., Singh, G., Bauman, J.L., & Gulati, A. (1996). Racial and gender differences in endothelin-1. American Journal of Cardiology, 78(4), 486–488. PubMed ID: 8752200 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9149(96)00344-x0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fagard, R.H. (2009). Smoking amplifies cardiovascular risk in patients with hypertension and diabetes. Diabetes Care, 32(Suppl. 2), S429–S431. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc09-S354

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Feairheller, D.L., Park, J.Y., Rizzo, V., Kim, B., & Brown, M.D. (2011). Racial differences in the responses to shear stress in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Vascular Health and Risk Management, 7, 425–431. PubMed ID: 21796257 https://doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S22435

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Forstermann, U., & Munzel, T. (2006). Endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular disease: From marvel to menace. Circulation, 113(13), 1708–1714. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.602532

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fox, E.R., Benjamin, E.J., Sarpong, D.F., Rotimi, C.N., Wilson, J.G., Steffes, M.W., Chen, G., Adeyemo, A., Taylor, J.K., Samdarshi, T.E., & Taylor, H.A., Jr. (2008). Epidemiology, heritability, and genetic linkage of C-reactive protein in African Americans (from the Jackson Heart Study). American Journal of Cardiology, 102(7), 835–841. PubMed ID: 18805107 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.05.049

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Franks, P., Gold, M.R., & Fiscella, K. (2003). Sociodemographics, self-rated health, and mortality in the US. Social Science Medicine, 56(12), 2505–2514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00281-2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gaciong, Z., Sinski, M., & Lewandowski, J. (2013). Blood pressure control and primary prevention of stroke: Summary of the recent clinical trial data and meta-analyses. Current Hypertension Reports, 15(6), 559–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-013-0401-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gallo, L.C., Roesch, S.C., Fortmann, A.L., Carnethon, M.R., Penedo, F.J., Perreira, K., Birnbaum-Weitzman, O., Wassertheil-Smoller, S., Castaneda, S.F., Talavera, G.A., Sotres-Alvarez, D., Daviglus, M.L., Schneiderman, N., & Isasi, C.R. (2014). Associations of chronic stress burden, perceived stress, and traumatic stress with cardiovascular disease prevalence and risk factors in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 76(6), 468–475. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000069

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gerber, Y., Weston, S.A., Killian, J.M., Therneau, T.M., Jacobsen, S.J., & Roger, V.L. (2008). Neighborhood income and individual education: Effect on survival after myocardial infarction. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83(6), 663–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-6196(11)60894-X

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Geronimus, A.T., Bound, J., Keene, D., & Hicken, M. (2007). Black-White differences in age trajectories of hypertension prevalence among adult women and men, 1999–2002. Ethnicity & Disease, 17(1), 40–48. PubMed ID: 17274208

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Geronimus, A.T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826–833. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ghiadoni, L., Donald, A.E., Cropley, M., Mullen, M.J., Oakley, G., Taylor, M., O’Connor, G., Betteridge, J., Klein, N., Steptoe, A., & Deanfield, J.E. (2000). Mental stress induces transient endothelial dysfunction in humans. Circulation, 102(20), 2473–2478. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.102.20.2473

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gibbons, M.C. (2005). A historical overview of health disparities and the potential of eHealth solutions. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 7(5), e50. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7.5.e50

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gill, J.M., Saligan, L., Woods, S., & Page, G. (2009). PTSD is associated with an excess of inflammatory immune activities. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 45(4), 262–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.2009.00229.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Graham, G. (2015). Disparities in cardiovascular disease risk in the United States. Current Cardiology Reviews, 11(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573403X11666141122220003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Griendling, K.K., & FitzGerald, G.A. (2003a). Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: Part I: Basic mechanisms and in vivo monitoring of ROS [Review]. Circulation, 108(16), 1912–1916. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000093660.86242.BB

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Griendling, K.K., & FitzGerald, G.A. (2003b). Oxidative stress and cardiovascular injury: Part II: Animal and human studies [Review]. Circulation, 108(17), 2034–2040. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000093661.90582.c4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Grubbs, A.L., Anstadt, M.P., & Ergul, A. (2002). Saphenous vein endothelin system expression and activity in African American patients. Arteriosclerosis THrombosis and Vascular Biology, 22(7), 1122–1127. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.0000023160.67766.F0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Guidi, J., Lucente, M., Sonino, N., & Fava, G.A. (2021). Allostatic load and its impact on health: A systematic review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510696

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hadi, H.A., Carr, C.S., & Al Suwaidi, J. (2005). Endothelial dysfunction: Cardiovascular risk factors, therapy, and outcome. Vascular Health and Risk Management, 1(3), 183–198.PubMed ID: 17319104

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hajat, A., Allison, M., Diez-Roux, A.V., Jenny, N.S., Jorgensen, N.W., Szpiro, A.A., Vedal, S., & Kaufman, J.D. (2015). Long-term exposure to air pollution and markers of inflammation, coagulation, and endothelial activation: A repeat-measures analysis in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Epidemiology, 26(3), 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000267

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hanson, M.A., & Gluckman, P.D. (2014). Early developmental conditioning of later health and disease: Physiology or pathophysiology? Physiology Reviews, 94(4), 1027–1076. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00029.2013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • He, X.Z., & Baker, D.W. (2005). Differences in leisure-time, household, and work-related physical activity by race, ethnicity, and education. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20(3), 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2005.40198.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heffernan, K.S., Jae, S.Y., Wilund, K.R., Woods, J.A., & Fernhall, B. (2008). Racial differences in central blood pressure and vascular function in young men. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 295(6), H2380–H2387. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00902.2008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hicken, M.T., Lee, H., Morenoff, J., House, J.S., & Williams, D.R. (2014). Racial/ethnic disparities in hypertension prevalence: Reconsidering the role of chronic stress. American Journal of Public Health, 104(1), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301395

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hinds, K., & Stachenfeld, N.S. (2010). Greater orthostatic tolerance in young black compared with white women. Hypertension, 56(1), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.110.150011

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Holowatz, L.A., & Kenney, W.L. (2011). Acute localized administration of tetrahydrobiopterin and chronic systemic atorvastatin treatment restore cutaneous microvascular function in hypercholesterolaemic humans. Journal of Physiology, 589(19), 4787–4797. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2011.212100

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hostinar, C.E., Ross, K.M., Chen, E., & Miller, G.E. (2017). Early-life socioeconomic disadvantage and metabolic health disparities. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79(5), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000455

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Howard, G., Labarthe, D.R., Hu, J., Yoon, S., & Howard, V.J. (2007). Regional differences in African Americans’ high risk for stroke: The remarkable burden of stroke for Southern African Americans. Annals of Epidemiology, 17(9), 689–696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.03.019

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Huikuri, H.V., Castellanos, A., & Myerburg, R.J. (2001). Sudden death due to cardiac arrhythmias. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(20), 1473–1482. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra000650

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hurr, C., Kim, K., Harrison, M.L., & Brothers, R.M. (2015). Attenuated cerebral vasodilatory capacity in response to hypercapnia in college-aged African Americans. Experimental Physiology, 100(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1113/expphysiol.2014.082362

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hurr, C., Patik, J.C., Kim, K., Christmas, K.M., & Brothers, R.M. (2018). Tempol augments the blunted cutaneous microvascular thermal reactivity in healthy young African Americans. Experimental Physiology, 103(3), 343–349. https://doi.org/10.1113/EP086776

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jarvis, S.S., Shibata, S., Okada, Y., Levine, B.D., & Fu, Q. (2014). Neural-humoral responses during head-up tilt in healthy young white and black women. Frontiers in Physiology, 5, 86. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00086

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jin, R.C., & Loscalzo, J. (2010). Vascular nitric oxide: Formation and function. Journal of Blood Medicine, 2010(1), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.2147/JBM.S7000

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kalinowski, L., Dobrucki, I.T., & Malinski, T. (2004). Race-specific differences in endothelial function: Predisposition of African Americans to vascular diseases. Circulation, 109(21), 2511–2517. PubMed ID: 15159296 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000129087.81352.7A

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kaplan, J.R., Pettersson, K., Manuck, S.B., & Olsson, G. (1991). Role of sympathoadrenal medullary activation in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Circulation, 84(6 Suppl), VI23–VI32. PubMed ID: 1683607

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kraus, H., & Rabb, W. (1961). Hypokinetic disease: Diseases produced by lack of exercise. Charles C. Thomas.

  • Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Social Science Medicine, 30(12), 1273–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(90)90307-E

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kucharska-Newton, A.M., Harald, K., Rosamond, W.D., Rose, K.M., Rea, T.D., & Salomaa, V. (2011). Socioeconomic indicators and the risk of acute coronary heart disease events: Comparison of population-based data from the United States and Finland. Annals of Epidemiology, 21(8), 572–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.04.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kushi, L.H., Folsom, A.R., Jacobs, D.R., Jr., Luepker, R.V., Elmer, P.J., & Blackburn, H. (1988). Educational attainment and nutrient consumption patterns: The Minnesota Heart Survey. Journal of American Dietetic Association, 88(10), 1230–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(21)07989-X

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lackland, D.T., Roccella, E.J., Deutsch, A.F., Fornage, M., George, M.G., Howard, G., Kissela, B.M., Kittner, S.J., Lichtman, J.H., Lisabeth, L.D., Schwamm, L.H., Smith, E.E., Towfighi, A., American Heart Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology. (2014). Factors influencing the decline in stroke mortality: A statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke, 45(1), 315–353. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.0000437068.30550.cf

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • LaRosa, A.R., Claxton, J., O’Neal, W.T., Lutsey, P.L., Chen, L.Y., Bengtson, L., Chamberlain, A.M., Alonso, A., & Magnani, J.W. (2020). Association of household income and adverse outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation. Heart, 106(21), 1679–1685. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2019-316065

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, I.M., Shiroma, E.J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S.N., Katzmarzyk, P.T., & Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. (2012). Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet, 380(9838), 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, J., & Seon, J. (2019). Educational attainment and health behaviors among young adult men: Racial/ethnic disparities. American Journal of Men's Health, 13(6), 1557988319894488. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988319894488

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewis, T.T., Williams, D.R., Tamene, M., & Clark, C.R. (2014). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and cardiovascular disease. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports, 8(1), 365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12170-013-0365-2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewthwaite, J., Owen, N., Coates, A., Henderson, B., & Steptoe, A. (2002). Circulating human heat shock protein 60 in the plasma of British civil servants: Relationship to physiological and psychosocial stress. Circulation, 106(2), 196–201. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000021121.26290.2C

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Li, B., Yang, J., Zhao, F., Zhi, L., Wang, X., Liu, L., Bi, Z., & Zhao, Y. (2020). Prevalence and impact of cardiovascular metabolic diseases on COVID-19 in China. Clinical Research Cardiology, 109(5), 531–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00392-020-01626-9

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Liu, S.Y., Manly, J.J., Capistrant, B.D., & Glymour, M.M. (2015). Historical differences in school term length and measured blood pressure: Contributions to persistent racial disparities among US-born adults. PLoS One, 10(6), e0129673. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129673

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loehr, L.R., Rosamond, W.D., Chang, P.P., Folsom, A.R., & Chambless, L.E. (2008). Heart failure incidence and survival (from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study). American Journal of Cardiologyl, 101(7), 1016–1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.11.061

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lucini, D., Di Fede, G., Parati, G., & Pagani, M. (2005). Impact of chronic psychosocial stress on autonomic cardiovascular regulation in otherwise healthy subjects. Hypertension, 46(5), 1201–1206. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.0000185147.32385.4b

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marden, J.R., Walter, S., Kaufman, J.S., & Glymour, M.M. (2016). African ancestry, social factors, and hypertension among non-hispanic blacks in the health and retirement study. Biodemography Society Biology, 62(1), 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/19485565.2015.1108836

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marinos, A., Gamboa, A., Celedonio, J.E., Preheim, B.A., Okamoto, L.E., Ramirez, C.E., Arnold, A.C., Diedrich, A., Biaggioni, I., & Shibao, C.A. (2017). Hypertension in obese black women is not caused by increased sympathetic vascular tone. Journal of the American Heart Association, 6(11), e006971. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.006971

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McEwen, B.S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338(3), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199801153380307

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Melikian, N., Wheatcroft, S.B., Ogah, O.S., Murphy, C., Chowienczyk, P.J., Wierzbicki, A.S., Sanders, T.A., Jiang, B., Duncan, E.R., Shah, A.M., & Kearney, M.T. (2007). Asymmetric dimethylarginine and reduced nitric oxide bioavailability in young Black African men. Hypertension, 49(4), 873–877. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.0000258405.25330.80

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Meneton, P., Kesse-Guyot, E., Mejean, C., Fezeu, L., Galan, P., Hercberg, S., & Menard, J. (2015). Unemployment is associated with high cardiovascular event rate and increased all-cause mortality in middle-aged socially privileged individuals. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 88(6), 707–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-014-0997-7

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mezzacappa, E.S., Kelsey, R.M., Katkin, E.S., & Sloan, R.P. (2001). Vagal rebound and recovery from psychological stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63(4), 650–657. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200107000-00018

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mody, P., Gupta, A., Bikdeli, B., Lampropulos, J.F., & Dharmarajan, K. (2012). Most important articles on cardiovascular disease among racial and ethnic minorities. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality Outcomes, 5(4), e33–e41. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.112.967638

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mohai, P., Pellow, D., & Roberts, J.T. (2009). Environmental justice. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34(1), 405–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mosquera, P.A., San Sebastian, M., Waenerlund, A.K., Ivarsson, A., Weinehall, L., & Gustafsson, P.E. (2016). Income-related inequalities in cardiovascular disease from mid-life to old age in a Northern Swedish cohort: A decomposition analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 149, 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.12.017

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Muncan, B. (2018). Cardiovascular disease in racial/ethnic minority populations: Illness burden and overview of community-based interventions. Public Health Reviews, 39(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-018-0109-4

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • National Center for Health Statistics. (2016). Health, United States 2015: With special feature on racial and ethnic disparities.

  • Newman, A.B., Siscovick, D.S., Manolio, T.A., Polak, J., Fried, L.P., Borhani, N.O., & Wolfson, S.K. (1993). Ankle-arm index as a marker of atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Cardiovascular Heart Study (CHS) Collaborative Research Group. Circulation, 88(3), 837–845. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.88.3.837

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nishiyama, S.K., Zhao, J., Wray, D.W., & Richardson, R.S. (2017). Vascular function and endothelin-1: Tipping the balance between vasodilation and vasoconstriction. Journal of Applied Physiology, 122(2), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00772.2016

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Non, A.L., Gravlee, C.C., & Mulligan, C.J. (2012). Education, genetic ancestry, and blood pressure in African Americans and Whites. American Journal of Public Health, 102(8), 1559–1565. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300448

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Okada, Y., Galbreath, M.M., Jarvis, S.S., Bivens, T.B., Vongpatanasin, W., Levine, B.D., & Fu, Q. (2012). Elderly blacks have a blunted sympathetic neural responsiveness but greater pressor response to orthostasis than elderly whites. Hypertension, 60(3), 842–848. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.112.195313

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Olin, J.W., & Sealove, B.A. (2010). Peripheral artery disease: Current insight into the disease and its diagnosis and management. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 85(7), 678–692. https://doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2010.0133

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ozkor, M.A., Rahman, A.M., Murrow, J.R., Kavtaradze, N., Lin, J., Manatunga, A., Hayek, S., & Quyyumi, A.A. (2014). Differences in vascular nitric oxide and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor bioavailability in blacks and whites. Arteriosclerosis THrombosis and Vascular Biology, 34(6), 1320–1327. https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.303136

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pascoe, E.A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Patik, J.C., Curtis, B.M., Nasirian, A., Vranish, J.R., Fadel, P.J., & Brothers, R.M. (2018). Sex differences in the mechanisms mediating blunted cutaneous microvascular function in young black men and women. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 315(4), H1063–H1071. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00142.2018

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Perregaux, D., Chaudhuri, A., Rao, S., Airen, A., Wilson, M., Sung, B.H., & Dandona, P. (2000). Brachial vascular reactivity in blacks. Hypertension, 36(5), 866–871. PubMed ID: 11082158 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.hyp.36.5.866

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Phillips, J.E., & Klein, W.M. (2010). Socioeconomic status and coronary heart disease risk: The role of social cognitive factors. Social and Personal Psychology Compass, 4(9), 704–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00295.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rajendran, P., Rengarajan, T., Thangavel, J., Nishigaki, Y., Sakthisekaran, D., Sethi, G., & Nishigaki, I. (2013). The vascular endothelium and human diseases. International Journal of Biological Sciences, 9(10), 1057–1069. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.7502

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rea, T.D., Eisenberg, M.S., Becker, L.J., Murray, J.A., & Hearne, T. (2003). Temporal trends in sudden cardiac arrest: A 25-year emergency medical services perspective. Circulation, 107(22), 2780–2785. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000070950.17208.2A

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Redmond, N., Baer, H.J., & Hicks, L.S. (2011). Health behaviors and racial disparity in blood pressure control in the national health and nutrition examination survey. Hypertension, 57(3), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.110.161950

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rosamond, W.D., Folsom, A.R., Chambless, L.E., Wang, C.H., McGovern, P.G., Howard, G., Copper, L.S., & Shahar, E. (1999). Stroke incidence and survival among middle-aged adults: 9-year follow-up of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) cohort. Stroke, 30(4), 736–743. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.30.4.736

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rose, K.M., Newman, B., Tyroler, H.A., Szklo, M., Arnett, D., & Srivastava, N. (1999). Women, employment status, and hypertension: Cross-sectional and prospective findings from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Annals of Epidemiology, 9(6), 374–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(99)00015-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sampson, U.K.A., Kaplan, R.M., Cooper, R.S., Diez Roux, A.V., Marks, J.S., Engelgau, M.M., Peprah, E., Mishoe, H., Boulware, L.E., Felix, K.L., Califf, R.M., Flack, J.M., Cooper, L.A., Gracia, J.N., Henderson, J.A., Davidson, K.W., Krishnan, J.A., Lewis, T.T., Sanchez, E., … Mensah, G.A. (2016). Reducing health inequities in the U.S.: Recommendations from the NHLBI’s health inequities think tank meeting. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 68(5), 517–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.04.059

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sapp, R.M., Chesney, C.A., Springer, C.B., Laskowski, M.R., Singer, D.B., Eagan, L.E., Mascone, S.E., Evans, W.S., Prior, S.J., Hagberg, J.M., & Ranadive, S.M. (2021). Race-specific changes in endothelial inflammation and microRNA in response to an acute inflammatory stimulus. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 320(6), H2371–H2384. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00991.2020

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schiffrin, E.L. (2001). Role of endothelin-1 in hypertension and vascular disease [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review]. American Journal of Hypertension, 14(11), S83–S89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-7061(01)02074-X

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schwartz, J.A. (2017). Long-term physical health consequences of perceived inequality: Results from a twin comparison design. Social Science & Medicine, 187, 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.06.006

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sherwood, A., Hill, L.K., Blumenthal, J.A., Johnson, K.S., & Hinderliter, A.L. (2017). Race and sex differences in cardiovascular alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptor responsiveness in men and women with high blood pressure. Journal of Hypertension, 35(5), 975–981. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000001266

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Shu, J., & Santulli, G. (2018). Update on peripheral artery disease: Epidemiology and evidence-based facts. Atherosclerosis, 275, 379–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.05.033

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, M. (2009). Introduction to syndemics: A critical systems approach to publics and community health. Wiley.

  • Stanhewicz, A.E., Bruning, R.S., Smith, C.J., Kenney, W.L., & Holowatz, L.A. (2012). Local tetrahydrobiopterin administration augments reflex cutaneous vasodilation through nitric oxide-dependent mechanisms in aged human skin. Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(5), 791–797. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01257.2011

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Taherzadeh, Z., Brewster, L.M., van Montfrans, G.A., & VanBavel, E. (2010). Function and structure of resistance vessels in black and white people. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 12(6), 431–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2010.00269.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2017). Siting of hazardous waste landfills and their correlation with racial and economic status of surrounding communities. 1983.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vable, A.M., Cohen, A.K., Leonard, S.A., Glymour, M.M., Duarte, C.D.P., & Yen, I.H. (2018). Do the health benefits of education vary by sociodemographic subgroup? Differential returns to education and implications for health inequities. Annals of Epidemiology, 28(11), 759–766.e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.08.014

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Virani, S.S., Alonso, A., Aparicio, H.J., Benjamin, E.J., Bittencourt, M.S., Callaway, C.W., Carson, A.P., Chamberlain, A.M., Cheng, S., Delling, F.N., Elkind, M.S.V., Evenson, K.R., Ferguson, J.F., Gupta, D.K., Khan, S.S., Kissela, B.M., Knutson, K.L., Lee, C.D., Lewis, T.T., … American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. (2021). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2021 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 143(8), e254–e743. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000950

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • von Kanel, R., Hepp, U., Traber, R., Kraemer, B., Mica, L., Keel, M., Mausbach, B.T., & Schnyder, U. (2008). Measures of endothelial dysfunction in plasma of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 158(3), 363–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2006.12.003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vranish, J.R., Holwerda, S.W., Young, B.E., Credeur, D.P., Patik, J.C., Barbosa, T.C., Keller, D.M., & Fadel, P.J. (2018). Exaggerated vasoconstriction to spontaneous bursts of muscle sympathetic nerve activity in healthy young black men. Hypertension, 71(1), 192–198. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.10229

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wallerstein, N., & Duran, B. (2010). Community-based participatory research contributions to intervention research: The intersection of science and practice to improve health equity. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S40–S46. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.184036

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wilson, V. (2019). Black unemployment is at least twice as high as White unemployment at the national level and in 14 states and the District of Columbia. Washington, DC.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wong, M.D., Shapiro, M.F., Boscardin, W.J., & Ettner, S.L. (2002). Contribution of major diseases to disparities in mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 347(20), 1585–1592. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa012979

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wood, S.K. (2014). Individual differences in the neurobiology of social stress: Implications for depression-cardiovascular disease comorbidity. Current Neuropharmacology, 12(2), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X11666131120224413

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Writing Committee Members, Gerhard-Herman, M.D., Gornik, H.L., Barrett, C., Barshes, N.R., Corriere, M.A., Drachman, D.E., Fleisher, L.A., Fowkes, F.G.R., Hamburg, N.M., Kinlay, S., Lookstein, R., Misra, S., Mureebe, L., Olin, J.W., Patel, R.A.G., Regensteiner, J.G., Schanzer, A., Shishehbor, M.H., … Wijeysundera, D.N. (2017). 2016 AHA/ACC guideline on the management of patients with lower extremity peripheral artery disease: Executive summary. Vascular Health, 22(3), NP1–NP43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358863X17701592

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wyatt, S.B., Williams, D.R., Calvin, R., Henderson, F.C., Walker, E.R., & Winters, K. (2003). Racism and cardiovascular disease in African Americans. American Journal of Medical Science, 325(6), 315–331. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000441-200306000-00003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yancy, C.W., Benjamin, E.J., Fabunmi, R.P., & Bonow, R.O. (2005). Discovering the full spectrum of cardiovascular disease: Minority Health Summit 2003: Executive summary. Circulation, 111(10), 1339–1349. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000157740.93598.51

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yang, D., Howard, G., Coffey, C.S., & Roseman, J. (2004). The confounding of race and geography: How much of the excess stroke mortality among African Americans is explained by geography? Neuroepidemiology, 23(3), 118–122. https://doi.org/10.1159/000075954

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yang, Y.M., Huang, A., Kaley, G., & Sun, D. (2009). eNOS uncoupling and endothelial dysfunction in aged vessels. American Journal of Phyisology Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 297(5), H1829–H1836. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00230.2009

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Yeboah, J., Crouse, J.R., Hsu, F.C., Burke, G.L., & Herrington, D.M. (2007). Brachial flow–mediated dilation predicts incident cardiovascular events in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation, 115(18), 2390–2397. PubMed ID: 17452608 https://doi.org/10.1097/00005344-199909000-00002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zhao, D., Post, W.S., Blasco-Colmenares, E., Cheng, A., Zhang, Y., Deo, R., Pastor-Barriuso, R., Michos, E.D., Sotoodehnia, N., & Guallar, E. (2019). Racial differences in sudden cardiac death. Circulation, 139(14), 1688–1697. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.036553

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zheng, Z.J., Sharrett, A.R., Chambless, L.E., Rosamond, W.D., Nieto, F.J., Sheps, D.S., Dobs, A., Evans, G.W., & Heiss, G. (1997). Associations of ankle-brachial index with clinical coronary heart disease, stroke and preclinical carotid and popliteal atherosclerosis: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis, 131(1), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9150(97)06089-9

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zou, M.H., Cohen, R., & Ullrich, V. (2004). Peroxynitrite and vascular endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Endothelium, 11(2), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/10623320490482619

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zwickl, K., Ash, M., & Boyce, J.K. (2014). Regional variation in environmental inequality: Industrial air toxics exposure in U.S. cities. Ecological Economics, 107, 494–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.09.013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 4301 2150 267
Full Text Views 63 17 1
PDF Downloads 85 21 2