Stereotype Threat in Sport: Recommendations for Applied Practice and Research

Click name to view affiliation

Daniel M. Smith Springfield College

Search for other papers by Daniel M. Smith in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
and
Sarah E. Martiny UiT—Arctic University of Norway

Search for other papers by Sarah E. Martiny in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0134
In Print:
Volume 32: Issue 4
Page Range:
311–320
Restricted access

Stereotype-threat theory holds that activation of a negative stereotype has a harmful effect on performance in cognitive and motor domains. This paper provides a literature review of stereotype-threat research in the motor domain followed by recommendations for sport psychology practitioners. The review discusses the most widespread stereotypes that exist in sport, the effects of stereotype activation on performance in different sports, and mechanisms that explain why stereotype threat decreases performance. Recommendations for practitioners include individual- and organizational-level approaches, with the former subdivided into interventions aimed at prevention or coping.

Smith is with the Dept. of Physical Education and Health Education, Springfield College, Springfield, MA. Martiny is with the Dept. of Psychology, UiT—Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.

Smith (dsmith19@springfield.edu) is corresponding author.
  • Collapse
  • Expand
Cover The Sport Psychologist

  • Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E., & Teasdale, J.D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(1), 49–74. PubMed ID: 649856 doi:10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aronson, J., Lustina, M.J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C.M., & Brown, J. (1999). When White men can’t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 29–46. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1371

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aronson, J., Quinn, D.M., & Spencer, S.J. (1998). Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women. In J.K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 11–36). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-012679130-3/50039-9

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baker, J., & Horton, S. (2003). East African running dominance revisited: A role for stereotype threat? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37(6), 553–555. PubMed ID: 14665602 doi:10.1136/bjsm.37.6.553

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 248–287. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-L

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baumeister, R.F. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 610–620. PubMed ID: 6707866 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.610

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baumeister, R.F., & Showers, C.J. (1986). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16(4), 361–383. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420160405

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., Jellison, W.A., Rydell, R.J., McConnell, A.R., & Carr, T.H. (2006). On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: Can skills that don’t rely heavily on working memory still be threatened? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(8), 1059–1071. PubMed ID: 16861310 doi:10.1177/0146167206288489

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., & McConnell, A.R. (2004). Stereotype threat and sport: Can athletic performance be threatened? Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(4), 597–609. doi:10.1123/jsep.26.4.597

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blackwell, L.S., Trzesniewski, K.H., & Dweck, C.S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263. PubMed ID: 17328703 doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chalabaev, A., Brisswalter, J., Radel, R., Coombes, S.A., Easthope, C., & Clément-Guillotin, C. (2013). Can stereotype threat affect motor performance in the absence of explicit monitoring processes? Evidence using a strength task. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(2), 211–215. PubMed ID: 23535978 doi:10.1123/jsep.35.2.211

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chalabaev, A., Dematte, E., Sarrazin, P., & Fontayne, P. (2014). Creating regulatory fit under stereotype threat: Effects on performance and self-determination among junior high school students. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 27(3), 119–132.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chalabaev, A., Major, B., Cury, F., & Sarrazin, P. (2009). Physiological markers of challenge and threat mediate the effects of performance-based goals on performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 991–994. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.009

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chalabaev, A., Sarrazin, P., Stone, J., & Cury, F. (2008). Do achievement goals mediate stereotype threat? An investigation on females’ soccer performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 143–158. PubMed ID: 18490787 doi:10.1123/jsep.30.2.143

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chalabaev, A., Stone, J., Sarrazin, P., & Croizet, J.-C. (2008). Investigating physiological and self-reported mediators of stereotype lift effects on a motor task. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30(1), 18–26. doi:10.1080/01973530701665256

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of “model minority” status. Psychological Science, 11(5), 399–402. PubMed ID: 11228911 doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00277

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cohen, G.L., Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Garcia, J. (2012). An identity threat perspective on intervention. In M. Inzlicht & T. Schmader (Eds.), Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application (pp. 280–296). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732449.003.0018

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cohen, G.L., Steele, C.M., & Ross, L.D. (1999). The mentor’s dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(10), 1302–1318. doi:10.1177/0146167299258011

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dumith, S.C., Gigante, D.P., Domingues, M.R., & Kohl, H.W. (2011). Physical activity change during adolescence: A systematic review and a pooled analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 40, 685–698. PubMed ID: 21245072 doi:10.1093/ije/dyq272

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Elliot, A.J., & Church, M.A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218–232. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • English, J.A., & Kruger, A.C. (2016). Appreciative advising: Six phases to mitigate stereotype threat among student athletes. Journal of Appreciative Education, 3(1), 18–29.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Feltz, D.L., Schneider, R., Hwang, S., & Skogsberg, N.J. (2013). Predictors of collegiate student-athletes’ susceptibility to stereotype threat. Journal of College Student Development, 54(2), 184–201. doi:10.1353/csd.2013.0014

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Forbes, C.E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Retraining implicit attitudes and stereotypes to distinguish motivation from performance in a stereotype threatening domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 740–754. PubMed ID: 20822288 doi:10.1037/a0020971

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Forbes, C.E., Schmader, T., & Allen, J.J. (2008). The role of devaluing and discounting in performance monitoring: A neurophysiological study of minorities under threat. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 3(3), 253–261. PubMed ID: 19015117 doi:10.1093/scan/nsn012

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Froehlich, L., Martiny, S.E., Deaux, K., Goetz, T., & Mok, S.Y. (2016). Being smart or getting smarter: Implicit theory of intelligence moderates stereotype threat and stereotype lift effects. British Journal of Social Psychology, 55(3), 564–587. PubMed ID: 27117190 doi:10.1111/bjso.12144

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gibson, O. (2016). BAME coach numbers stall in English football’s four divisions. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/nov/15/bame-coach-numbers-stall-english-football

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C.S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717. PubMed ID: 22288527 doi:10.1037/a0026659

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Grimm, L.R., Markman, A.B., Maddox, W.T., & Baldwin, G.C. (2009). Stereotype threat reinterpreted as a regulatory mismatch. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 288–304. PubMed ID: 19159133 doi:10.1037/a0013463

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gucciardi, D.F., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Choking under pressure in sensorimotor skills: Conscious processing or depleted attentional resources? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(1), 45–59. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.10.007

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hall, W.M., Schmader, T., & Croft, E. (2015). Engineering exchanges: Daily social identity threat predicts burnout among female engineers. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(5), 528–534. doi:10.1177/1948550615572637

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harrison, C.K., Stone, J., Shapiro, J., Yee, S., Boyd, J.A., & Rullan, V. (2009). The role of gender identities and stereotype salience with the academic performance of male and female college athletes. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 33, 78–96. doi:10.1177/0193723508328902

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heidrich, C., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2015). Stereotype threat affects the learning of sport motor skills. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 18, 42–46. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.12.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hermann, J.M., & Vollmeyer, R. (2016). “Girls should cook, rather than kick!”—Female soccer players under stereotype threat. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 94–101. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.06.010

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Higgins, E.T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1217–1230. PubMed ID: 11280936 doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1217

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., Hanton, S., Matthews, N., & Fleming, S. (2010). Choking in sport: A review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(1), 24–39. doi:10.1080/17509840903301199

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hively, K., & El-Alayli, A. (2014). “You throw like a girl”: The effect of stereotype threat on women’s athletic performance and gender stereotypes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(1), 48–55. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.09.001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Holleran, S.E., Whitehead, J., Schmader, T., & Mehl, M.R. (2011). Talking shop and shooting the breeze: A study of workplace conversation and job disengagement among STEM faculty. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(1), 65–71. doi:10.1177/1948550610379921

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Horton, S., Baker, J., Pearce, W., & Deakin, J.M. (2010). Immunity to popular stereotypes of aging? Seniors and stereotype threat. Educational Gerontology, 36(5), 353–371. doi:10.1080/03601270903323976

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Huguet, P., & Régner, I. (2009). Counter-stereotypic beliefs in math do not protect school girls from stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 1024–1027. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.029

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hussey, J.K. (2015). Mindfulness in sport: A proposed intervention for choking susceptible athletes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Oxford, OH: Miami University.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, S.M., Hillard, A.L., & Schneider, T.R. (2014). Using implicit bias training to improve attitudes toward women in STEM. Social Psychology of Education, 17(3), 419–438. doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9259-5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16(3), 175–179. PubMed ID: 15733195 doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00799.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jordet, G. (2009). When superstars flop: Public status and choking under pressure in international soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 125–130. doi:10.1080/10413200902777263

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H.R. (2011). Social psychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

  • Kauer, K.J., & Krane, V. (2006). “Scary dykes” and “feminine queens”: Stereotypes and female collegiate athletes. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 15(1), 42–55. doi:10.1123/wspaj.15.1.42

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(5), 871–888. PubMed ID: 10821195 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.871

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Knight, J.L., & Giuliano, T.A. (2001). He’s a Laker; she’s a “looker”: The consequences of gender-stereotypical portrayals of male and female athletes by the print media. Sex Roles, 45(3–4), 217–229. doi:10.1023/A:1013553811620

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Koivula, N. (1999). Gender stereotyping in televised media sport coverage. Sex Roles, 41(7–8), 589–604. doi:10.1023/A:1018899522353

  • Kray, L.J., Thompson, L., & Galinsky, A. (2001). Battle of the sexes: Gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 942–958. PubMed ID: 11414376 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.942

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Krendl, A., Gainsburg, I., & Ambady, N. (2012). The effects of stereotypes and observer pressure on athletic performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34, 3–15. PubMed ID: 22356881 doi:10.1123/jsep.34.1.3

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Langer, E.J., & Imber, L.G. (1979). When practice makes imperfect: Debilitating effects of overlearning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(11), 2014–2024. PubMed ID: 521900 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2014

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Laurin, R. (2013). Stereotype threat and lift effects in motor task performance: The mediating role of somatic and cognitive anxiety. Journal of Social Psychology, 153(6), 687–699. PubMed ID: 24236380 doi:10.1080/00224545.2013.821098

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Levy, B. (1996). Improving memory in old age through implicit self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(6), 1092–1107. PubMed ID: 8979380 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1092

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Macrae, C.N., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 93–120. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Martiny, S.E., Gleibs, I.H., Parks-Stamm, E.J., Martiny-Huenger, T., Froehlich, L., Harter, A.-L., & Roth, J. (2015). Dealing with negative stereotypes in sports: The role of cognitive anxiety when multiple identities are activated in sensorimotor tasks. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 37, 379–392. PubMed ID: 26442769 doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0284

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Masters, R.S.W. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British Journal of Psychology, 83(3), 343–358. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02446.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Masters, R.S.W. (2000). Theoretical aspects of implicit learning in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 530–541.

  • Mok, S.Y., Martiny, S.E., Gleibs, I.H., Deaux, K., & Froehlich, L. (2017). The interaction of vertical collectivism and stereotype activation on the performance of Turkish-origin high school students. Learning and Individual Differences, 56, 76–84. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.05.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Richards, Z., & Hewstone, M. (2001). Subtyping and subgrouping: Processes for the prevention and promotion of stereotype change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 52–73. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0501_4

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rothbart, M., & John, O.P. (1985). Social categorization and behavioral episodes: A cognitive analysis of the effects of intergroup contact. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3), 81–104. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1985.tb01130.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rudman, L.A., Ashmore, R.D., & Gary, M.L. (2001). “Unlearning” automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 856–868. PubMed ID: 11708562 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.856

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rydell, R.J., McConnell, A.R., & Beilock, S.L. (2009). Multiple social identities and stereotype threat: Imbalance, accessibility, and working memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 949–966. PubMed ID: 19379029 doi:10.1037/a0014846

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 194–201. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1500

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schmader, T., & Beilock, S. (2012). An integration of processes that underlie stereotype threat. In M. Inzlicht & T. Schmader (Eds.), Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application (pp. 34–50). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732449.003.0003

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schmader, T., Forbes, C.E., Zhang, S., & Mendes, W.B. (2009). A metacognitive perspective on the cognitive deficits experienced in intellectually threatening environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(5), 584–596. PubMed ID: 19228598 doi:10.1177/0146167208330450

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 440–452. PubMed ID: 14498781 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115(2), 336–356. PubMed ID: 18426293 doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schuster, C., Martiny, S.E., & Schmader, T. (2015). Distracted by the unthought-suppression and reappraisal of mind wandering under stereotype threat. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 0122207. PubMed ID: 25815814 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122207

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Shih, M., Ambady, N., Richeson, J.A., Fujita, K., & Gray, H.M. (2002). Stereotype performance boosts: The impact of self-relevance and the manner of stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 638–647. PubMed ID: 12219859 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.638

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Shih, M., Pittinsky, T.L., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10(1), 80–83. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00111

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Silva, C.F., & Howe, P.D. (2012). The (in)validity of supercrip representation of Paralympian athletes. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 36(2), 174–194. doi:10.1177/0193723511433865

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M., & Quinn, D.M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4–28. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Steele, C.M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. PubMed ID: 9174398 doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Steele, C.M. (1999). Thin ice: Stereotype threat and Black college students. Atlantic Monthly, 284, 44–54.

  • Steele, C.M. (2011). Whistling Vivaldi: How stereotypes affect us and what we can do. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.

  • Steele, C.M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. PubMed ID: 7473032 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Steele, C.M., Spencer, S.J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In M.P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379–440). San Diego, CA: Erlbaum. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80009-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J. (2002). Battling doubt by avoiding practice: The effects of stereotype threat on self-handicapping in White athletes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1667–1678. doi:10.1177/014616702237648

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J., Chalabaev, A., & Harrison, C.K. (2012). The impact of stereotype threat on performance in sports. In M. Inzlicht & T. Schmader (Eds.), Stereotype threat: Theory, process, and application (pp. 217–230). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732449.003.0014

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J., Harrison, C.K., & Mottley, J. (2012). “Don’t call me a student-athlete”: The effect of identity priming on stereotype threat for academically engaged African American college athletes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 34, 99–106. doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.655624

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J., Lynch, C.I., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J.M. (1999). Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1213–1227. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1213

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J., & McWhinnie, C. (2008). Evidence that blatant versus subtle stereotype threat cues impact performance through dual processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 445–452. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.02.006

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stone, J., Perry, W., & Darley, J.M. (1997). “White men can’t jump”: Evidence for the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes following a basketball game. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19(3), 291–306. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1903_2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Swift, H.J., Lamont, R.A., & Abrams, D. (2012). Are they half as strong as they used to be? An experiment testing whether age-related social comparisons impair older people’s hand grip strength and persistence. BMJ Open, 2(3), e001064. PubMed ID: 22619267 doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001064

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W.G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Van Tuyckom, C., Scheerder, J., & Bracke, P. (2010). Gender and age inequalities in regular sports participation: A cross-national study of 25 European countries. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28, 1077–1084. PubMed ID: 20672218 doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.492229

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walton, G.M., & Cohen, G.L. (2003). Stereotype lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 456–467. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00019-2

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walton, G.M., & Cohen, G.L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82–96. PubMed ID: 17201544 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wensing, E.H., & Bruce, T. (2003). Bending the rules: Media representations of gender during an international sporting event. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 38(4), 387–396. doi:10.1177/1012690203384001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Woodcock, A., Hernandez, P.R., Estrada, M., & Schultz, P. (2012). The consequences of chronic stereotype threat: Domain disidentification and abandonment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(4), 635–646. PubMed ID: 22746674 doi:10.1037/a0029120

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zinsser, N., Bunker, L., & Williams, J.M. (2006). Cognitive techniques for building confidence and enhancing performance. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th ed., pp. 349–381). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 5915 2032 1342
Full Text Views 333 99 9
PDF Downloads 237 25 2