Usual and Pressure-Affected Thinking in Skilled Golfers: A Survey of Preparation and Execution Thought Processes

in The Sport Psychologist

Click name to view affiliation

Leo J. Roberts Mathematical Sciences Discipline, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Search for other papers by Leo J. Roberts in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Mervyn S. Jackson Psychology Discipline, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Search for other papers by Mervyn S. Jackson in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Ian H. Grundy Mathematical Sciences Discipline, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Search for other papers by Ian H. Grundy in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2021-0151
Keywords:
self-paced sport; motor-skill expertise; choking
First Published Online:
12 Jul 2022
In Print:
Volume 36: Issue 3
Page Range:
183–194
Restricted access

There are numerous studies of expert golfers’ thought processes, but few have examined thinking during both shot preparation and execution. This study had skilled golfers (N = 95, mean handicap = 1.5) complete a mixed-methods survey about their preparation/execution thoughts (a) in usual competitive circumstances and (b) during past experiences of choking. The results provided rare documentation of the ways that highly skilled golfers occupy their minds throughout the whole shot-making process. Moreover, the data allowed comparison of what golfers prefer to focus on and what the sport psychology literature recommends as optimal. The clearest gap that emerged was widespread use of deliberate or multifaceted thought during execution, against classical recommendations to swing with a quiet mind. The examination of choking implied that conscious interference was a more common rationalization for choking than previously reported. Implications for practice are discussed.

  • Collapse
  • Expand

The Sport Psychologist

Cover The Sport Psychologist

  • Allsop, J.E., Lawrence, G.P., Gray, R., & Khan, M.A. (2017). The interaction between practice and performance pressure on the planning and control of fast target directed movement. Psychological Research, 81(5), 1004–1019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0791-0

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • An, J., Wulf, G., & Kim, S. (2013). Increased carry distance and X-factor stretch in golf through an external focus of attention. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 1(1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.1.1.2

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baumeister, R.F. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 610–620. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.610

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Becker, K.A., Georges, A.F., & Aiken, C.A. (2019). Considering a holistic focus of attention as an alternative to an external focus. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 7(2), 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2017-0065

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., Bertenthal, B.I., McCoy, A.M., & Carr, T.H. (2004). Haste does not always make waste: Expertise, direction of attention, and speed versus accuracy in performing sensorimotor skills. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11(2), 373–379. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196585

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., & Carr, T.H. (2001). On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(4), 701–725. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.701

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., Carr, T.H., MacMahon, C., & Starkes, J.L. (2002). When paying attention becomes counterproductive: Impact of divided versus skill-focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-898X.8.1.6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Beilock, S.L., & Gray, R. (2007). Why do athletes choke under pressure? In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 425–444). Wiley & Sons.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bell, J.J., & Hardy, J. (2009). Effects of attentional focus on skilled performance in golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200902795323

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bernier, M., Thienot, E., Codron, R., & Fournier, J.F. (2009). Mindfulness and acceptance approaches in sport performance. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3(4), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.3.4.320

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Christensen, W., Sutton, J., & McIlwain, D. (2015). Putting pressure on theories of choking: Towards an expanded perspective on breakdown in skilled performance. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 14(2), 253–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-014-9395-6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Christensen, W., Sutton, J., & McIlwain, D.J. (2016). Cognition in skilled action: Meshed control and the varieties of skill experience. Mind & Language, 31(1), 37–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/mila.12094

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cotterill, S. (2010). Pre-performance routines in sport: Current understanding and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(2), 132–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2010.488269

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cotterill, S.T., Sanders, R., & Collins, D. (2010). Developing effective pre-performance routines in golf: Why don’t we ask the golfer? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903403216

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Creswell, J.W., & Clark, V.L.P. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.

  • Creswell, J.W., & Hirose, M. (2019). Mixed methods and survey research in family medicine and community health. Family Medicine and Community Health, 7(2), e000086. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2018-000086

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davies, T.C., Collins, D., & Cruickshank, A. (2014). So what do we do with the rest of the day? Going beyond the pre-shot routine in professional golf. International Journal of Golf Science, 3(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijgs.2014-0008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Denzin, N.K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. McGraw-Hill.

  • Ducrocq, E., Wilson, M., Vine, S.J., & Derakshan, N. (2016). Training attentional control improves cognitive and motor task performance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(5), 521–533. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0052

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Eysenck, M.W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M.G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7(2), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Eysenck, M.W., & Wilson, M. (2016). Sporting performance, pressure and cognition. In D. Groome & M. Eysenck (Eds.), An introduction to applied cognitive psychology (pp. 329–372). Routledge.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fitts, P.M., & Posner, M.I. (1967). Human performance. Brooks/Cole.

  • Gallicchio, G., Cooke, A., & Ring, C. (2016). Lower left temporal-frontal connectivity characterizes expert and accurate performance: High-alpha T7-Fz connectivity as a marker of conscious processing during movement. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 5(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000055

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gallicchio, G., Cooke, A., & Ring, C. (2018). Assessing ocular activity during performance of motor skills using electrooculography. Psychophysiology, 55(1), e13070. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13070

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gardner, F.L., & Moore, Z.E. (2012). Mindfulness and acceptance models in sport psychology: A decade of basic and applied scientific advancements. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 53(4), 309. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030220

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gould, D., & Udry, E. (1994). Psychological skills for enhancing performance: Arousal regulation strategies. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26(4), 478–485. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199404000-00013

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gray, R. (2004). Attending to the execution of a complex sensorimotor skill: Expertise differences, choking, and slumps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10(1), 42–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.10.1.42

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gray, R. (2021). How we learn to move: A revolution in the way we coach & practice sports skills. Perception Action Consulting & Education LLC.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gröpel, P., & Mesagno, C. (2019). Choking interventions in sports: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 176–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1408134

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gucciardi, D.F., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Choking under pressure in sensorimotor skills: Conscious processing or depleted attentional resources? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.10.007

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gucciardi, D.F., Longbottom, J.L., Jackson, B., & Dimmock, J.A. (2010). Experienced golfers’ perspectives on choking under pressure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 32(1), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.1.61

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (1999). The effects of a multimodal intervention program on performers: II. Training the butterflies to fly in formation. The Sport Psychologist, 13(1), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.1.22

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hatfield, B.D. (2018). Brain dynamics and motor behavior: A case for efficiency and refinement for superior performance. Kinesiology Review, 7(1), 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2017-0056

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., Carvell, S., Matthews, N., Weston, N.J., & Thelwell, R.R. (2017). Exploring choking experiences in elite sport: The role of self-presentation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 33, 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.09.001

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., Hanton, S., Fleming, S., & Matthews, N. (2009). A re-examination of choking in sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 9(4), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390902818278

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., Hanton, S., Matthews, N., & Fleming, S. (2010). A qualitative exploration of choking in elite golf. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4(3), 221–240. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.4.3.221

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., & Hemmings, B. (2015). A phenomenological exploration of coping responses associated with choking in sport. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 7(4), 521–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2014.981573

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, D.M., & Shaw, G. (2013). A qualitative examination of choking under pressure in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(1), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.07.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hussey, J.K. (2015). Mindfulness in sport: A proposed intervention for choking susceptible athletes (Master’s thesis). Miami University.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, R.C. (2003). Pre-performance routine consistency: Temporal analysis of goal kicking in the Rugby Union World Cup. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(10), 803–814. https://doi.org/10.1080/0264041031000140301

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, R.C., & Baker, J.S. (2001). Routines, rituals, and rugby: Case study of a world class goal kicker. The Sport Psychologist, 15(1), 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.15.1.48

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, R.C., & Willson, R.J. (1999). Using “swing thoughts” to prevent paradoxical performance effects in golf putting. In M.R. Farrally & A.J. Cochran (Eds.), Science and golf III: Proceedings of the 1998 world scientific congress of golf (pp. 166–173). Human Kinetics.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jenkins, S. (2007). The use of swing keys by elite tournament professional golfers. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2(1), 199–229. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407789705460

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jordet, G. (2009). When superstars flop: Public status and choking under pressure in international soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200902777263

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Low, W.R., Sandercock, G., Freeman, P., Winter, M.E., Butt, J., & Maynard, I. (2021). Pressure training for performance domains: A meta-analysis. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(1), 149. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000202

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Martin, K.A., Moritz, S.E., & Hall, C.R. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. The Sport Psychologist, 13(3), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.3.245

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Masters, R., & Maxwell, J. (2008). The theory of reinvestment. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(2), 160–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840802287218

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mesagno, C., & Beckmann, J. (2017). Choking under pressure: Theoretical models and interventions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.015

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mesagno, C., Harvey, J.T., & Janelle, C.M. (2012). Choking under pressure: The role of fear of negative evaluation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.07.007

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mesagno, C., & Mullane-Grant, T. (2010). A comparison of different pre-performance routines as possible choking interventions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.491780

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Montero, B.G. (2020). Consciousness and skill. In E. Fridland & C. Pavese (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of philosophy of skill and expertise (pp. 181–193). Routledge.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mullen, R., & Hardy, L. (2010). Conscious processing and the process goal paradox. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(3), 275–297. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.3.275

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nibbeling, N., Oudejans, R.R., & Daanen, H.A. (2012). Effects of anxiety, a cognitive secondary task, and expertise on gaze behavior and performance in a far aiming task. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(4), 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.02.002

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nideffer, R.M. (1992). Psyched to win. Leisure Press.

  • Nieuwenhuys, A., & Oudejans, R.R. (2012). Anxiety and perceptual-motor performance: Toward an integrated model of concepts, mechanisms, and processes. Psychological Research, 76(6), 747–759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-011-0384-x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Cathain, A., & Thomas, K.J. (2004). “Any other comments?” Open questions on questionnaires—A bane or a bonus to research? BMC Medical Research Methodology, 4(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-4-25

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ochsner, K.N., & Schacter, D.L. (2000). A social cognitive neuroscience approach to emotion and memory. In J.C. Borod (Ed.), The neuropsychology of emotion (pp. 163–193). Oxford University Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2(2), 105–130. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2.2.105

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Oudejans, R.R., Kuijpers, W., Kooijman, C.C., & Bakker, F.C. (2011). Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: Skill-focus or performance worries? Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 24(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2010.481331

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Payne, K.L., Wilson, M.R., & Vine, S.J. (2019). A systematic review of the anxiety-attention relationship in far-aiming skills. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 325–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2018.1499796

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roberts, L.J., Jackson, M.S., & Grundy, I.H. (2017). Choking under pressure: Illuminating the role of distraction and self-focus. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1374432

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roberts, L.J., Jackson, M.S., & Grundy, I.H. (2019). The effects of cognitive interference during the preparation and execution of the golf swing. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19(3), 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1674901

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rotella, B. (2007). The use of swing keys by elite tournament professional golfers: A commentary. Annual Review of Golf Coaching, 2(1), 219–221. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407789705460

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sim, M., & Kim, J.-U. (2010). Differences between experts and novices in kinematics and accuracy of golf putting. Human Movement Science, 29(6), 932–946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2010.07.0148

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, R.N. (1988). Strategies and metastrategies in learning and performing self-paced athletic skills. The Sport Psychologist, 2(1), 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2.1.49

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, R.N. (2000). Performance and human factors: Considerations about cognition and attention for self-paced and externally-paced events. Ergonomics, 43(10), 1661–1680. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401300750004078

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Singer, R.N. (2001). Preperformance state, routines, and automaticity: What does it take to realize expertise in self-paced events? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23(4), 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.23.4.359

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thomas, P.R., & Over, R. (1994). Psychological and psychomotor skills associated with performance in golf. Sport Psychologist, 8, 73–73. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.8.1.73

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Toner, J., Montero, B.G., & Moran, A. (2016). Reflective and prereflective bodily awareness in skilled action. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(4), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000090

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Toner, J., & Moran, A. (2011). The effects of conscious processing on golf putting proficiency and kinematics. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(7), 673–683. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.553964

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Toner, J., & Moran, A. (2021). Exploring the orthogonal relationship between controlled and automated processes in skilled action. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 12(3), 577–593. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-020-00505-6

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vine, S.J., Lee, D., Moore, L.J., & Wilson, M.R. (2013). Quiet eye and choking: Online control breaks down at the point of performance failure. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 45(10), 1988–1994. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31829406c7

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Vine, S.J., & Wilson, M. (2011). The influence of quiet eye training and pressure on attention and visuo-motor control. Acta Psychologica, 136(3), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.12.008

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Whitehead, A.E., Taylor, J.A., & Polman, R.C. (2016). Evidence for skill level differences in the thought processes of golfers during high and low pressure situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1974. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01974

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wulf, G., Höß, M., & Prinz, W. (1998). Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222899809601334

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 1245 539 40
Full Text Views 118 69 14
PDF Downloads 85 38 9