“Think Aloud” as a Facilitator of Self-Regulation in Golfers

in The Sport Psychologist

Click name to view affiliation

Phil D.J. Birch Institute of Sport, Nursing and Allied Health, University of Chichester, Chichester, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Phil D.J. Birch in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
*
,
Beth Yeoman Institute of Sport, Nursing and Allied Health, University of Chichester, Chichester, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Beth Yeoman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Amy E. Whitehead School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Amy E. Whitehead in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2022-0017
Keywords:
golf; perceptions; performance; reflection
First Published Online:
09 Nov 2022
In Print:
Volume 36: Issue 4
Page Range:
274–283
Restricted access

Think Aloud (TA) has been used as a tool to promote self-regulation and reflection in coaches, yet it has not been employed in the same context to support athletes. The aim of the present study was to understand golfers’ perceptions of using TA at two time points: immediately postperformance and after a 6- to 8-week reflection period. Six golfers (five male, one female; age: M = 30.8 years, SD = 14.8; handicap: M = 6.92, SD = 3.9) used TA during the performance on six holes of golf and listened back to their TA audio. Using semistructured interviews and subsequent thematic analyses, we generated four themes: increased awareness, awareness of how behavior influences performance, disruption of thought processes and performance, and application to coaching. Preliminary evidence provides support for TA as a potential tool to promote self-regulation in golfers, which could be used to inform coaching interventions.

  • Collapse
  • Expand

The Sport Psychologist

Cover The Sport Psychologist

  • Banning, M. (2008). A review of clinical decision making: Models and current research. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17, 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01791.x

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Baumeister, R.F., & Showers, C.J. (1986). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16(4), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420160405

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bernard, H.R., Killworth, P., Kronenfeld, D., & Sailer, L. (1984). The problem of informant accuracy: The validity of retrospective data. Annual Review of Anthropology, 13(1), 495–517. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.002431

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Birch, P.D.J., & Whitehead, A.E. (2019). Investigating the comparative suitability of traditional and task-specific Think Aloud training. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 127(1), 202–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512519882274

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners. Sage.

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(3), 328–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2020.1769238

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brick, N., MacIntyre, T., & Campbell, M. (2015). Metacognitive processes in the self-regulation of performance in elite endurance runners. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.02.003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Calmeiro, L., Tenenbaum, G., & Eccles, D. (2010). Event-sequence analysis of appraisals and coping during trapshooting performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(4), 392–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.495325

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cleary, T., & Zimmerman, B.J. (2001). Self-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non- experts, and novices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(2), 185–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753149883

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Creswell, J., & Miller, D. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory Into Practice, 39(3), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Double, K.S., & Birney, D.P. (2019). Reactivity to measures of metacognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2755. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02755

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ericsson, K.A., & Simon, H.A. (1993). Verbal reports as data. MIT Press.

  • Fitts, P.M., & Posner, M.I. (1967). Human performance. Brooks/Cole.

  • Fox, M.C., Ericsson, K.A., & Best, R. (2011). Do procedures for verbal reporting of thinking have to be reactive? A meta-analysis and recommendations for best reporting methods. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 316–344. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021663

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit.

  • Hansen, P.Ø., & Andersen, S.S. (2014). Coaching elite athletes: How coaches stimulate elite athletes’ reflection. Sports Coaching Review, 3(1), 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2014.901712

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Howell, W.S. (1982). The empathic communicator. University of Minnesota, Wadsworth Publishing Company.

  • Jones, R., Morgan, K., & Harris, K. (2012). Developing coaching pedagogy: Seeking a better integration of theory and practice. Sport, Education and Society, 17(3), 313–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2011.608936

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jonker, L., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Toering, T.T., Lyons, J., & Visscher, C. (2011). The role of self-regulatory skills in sport and academic performances of elite youth athletes. Talent Development & Excellence, 3(2), 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.516270

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jonker, L., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., & Visscher, C. (2010). Differences in self-regulatory skills among talented athletes: The significance of competitive level and type of sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(8), 901–908. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640411003797157

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kaiseler, M., Polman, R.C., & Nicholls, A.R. (2012). Gender differences in Appraisal and Coping: An examination of the situational and dispositional hypothesis. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 43(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2013.749004

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lee, J.E.M., & Ryan-Wenger, N. (1997). The “think aloud” seminar for teaching clinical reasoning: A case study of a child with pharyngitis. Journal of Paediatric Health Care, 11(1). 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5245(97)90061-4

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lidor, J. (2004). Developing metacognitive behaviour in physical education classes: The use of task-pertinent learning strategies. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 9, 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740898042000124

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Masters, R.S. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know‐how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British Journal of Psychology, 83(3), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02446.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Moffat, Z.L., McCarthy, P.J., & McCann, B. (2021). Shifting attributions, shaping behavior: A brief intervention with youth tennis players. Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(1), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1123/cssep.2020-0036

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Newton, P., & Burgess, D. (2008). Exploring types of educational action research: Implications for research validity. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 7(4), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690800700402

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nicholls, A.R., & Polman, R.C. (2008). Think aloud: Acute stress and coping strategies during golf performances. Anxiety Stress Coping, 21(3), 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701609207

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nietfeld, J. (2003). An examination of metacognitive strategy use and monitoring skills by competitive middle distance runners. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(4), 307–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/714044199

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Page, J., & Thelwell, R. (2013). The value of social validation in single-case methods in sport and exercise psychology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2012.663859

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Peltier, J.W., Hay, A., & Drago, W. (2006). Reflecting on reflection: Scale extension and a comparison of undergraduate business students in the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal of Marketing Education, 28(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475305279658

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pijpers, J.R., Oudejans, R.R., & Bakker, F.C. (2005). Anxiety-induced changes in movement behaviour during the execution of a complex whole-body task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 58(3), 421–445. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980343000945

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage.

  • Samdahl, D. (1999). Differences between quantitative and qualitative research. In E.J. Jackson & T.L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the 21st century (pp. 119–133). Venture Publications.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sarkar, M., & Fletcher, D. (2014). Psychological resilience in sport performers: A review of stressors and protective factors. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(15), 1419–1434. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.901551

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sayer A. (2000). Realism and social science. Sage Publications.

  • Schmidt, R.A., & Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor learning & performance: A problem-based learning approach. Human Kinetics.

  • Smith, B. (2018). Generalizability in qualitative research: Misunderstandings, opportunities and recommendations for the sport and exercise sciences. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(1), 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2017.1393221

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, B., & McGannon, K.R. (2018). Developing rigor in qualitative research: Problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychology. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1317357

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, B., & Sparkes, A.C. (2016). Routledgehandbook of qualitative research in sport and exercise (pp. 103–123). Routledge.

  • Sparkes, A.C., & Smith, B. (2014). Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product. Routledge.

  • Stephenson, J., Cronin, C., & Whitehead, A.E. (2020). “Suspended above, and in action”: Think Aloud as a reflective practice tool. International Sports Coaching Journal, 7(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2018-0022

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Swettenham, L., Eubank, M., Won, D., & Whitehead, A.E. (2018). Investigating stress and coping during practice and competition in tennis using think aloud. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(2), 218–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2018.1511622

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Swettenham, L., & Whitehead, A.E. (2021). Developing the triad of knowledge in coaching: Think Aloud as a reflective tool within a Category 1 Football Academy. International Sport Coaching Journal, 9(1), 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2020-0122

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Szedlak, C., Smith, M.J., Callary, B., & Day, M.C. (2019). Using written, audio, and video vignettes to translate knowledge to elite strength and conditioning coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 6(2), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2018-0027

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tan, S.L., Koh, K.T., & Kokkonen, M. (2016). The perception of elite athletes’ guided self-reflection and performance in archery. Reflective Practice, 17(2), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2016.1146582

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Theodosiou, A., & Papaioannou, A. (2006). Motivational climate, achievement goals and metacognitive activity in physical education and exercise involvement in out-of-school settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(4), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.10.002

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tracy, S.J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight “Big-Tent” criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(10), 837–851. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wan, C.Y., & Huon, G.F. (2005). Performance degradation under pressure in music: An examination of attentional processes. Psychology of Music, 33(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050649

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Whitehead, A.E., Cropley, B., Miles, A., Huntley, T., Quayle, L., & Knowles, Z. (2016). “Think Aloud”: Towards a framework to facilitate reflective practice amongst rugby league coaches. International Sport Coaching Journal, 3(3), 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2016-0021

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Whitehead, A.E., & Jackman, P.C. (2021). Towards a framework of cognitive processes during competitive golf using the Think Aloud method. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 53, 101869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101869

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Whitehead, A.E., Jones, H.S., Williams, E.L., Rowley, C., Quayle, L., Marchant, D., & Polman, R.C. (2018). Investigating the relationship between cognitions, pacing strategies and performance in 16.1 km cycling time trials using a think aloud protocol. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 34, 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.10.001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Whitehead, A.E., Taylor, J.A., & Polman, R.C.J. (2016). Evidence for skill level differences in the thought processes of golfers during high and low pressure situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01974

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wilson, V.E., Peper, E., & Schmid, A. (2006). Training strategies for concentration. In J.N. Williams (Ed.). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 404–422). Boston: McGraw Hill.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wiltshire, G. (2018). A case for critical realism in the pursuit of interdisciplinarity and impact. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(5), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2018.1467482

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zimmerman, B.J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich, , & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Selfregulation: Theory, research and application (pp. 13–39). Academic Press.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zimmerman, B.J. (2006). Development and adaptation of expertise: The role of self regulatory processes and beliefs. In K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P.J. Feltovich, & R.R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 705–722). Cambridge University Press.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing students’ use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 614–628. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312023004614

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 1032 619 33
Full Text Views 140 122 11
PDF Downloads 91 63 2