Athletic Image Type Influences Women’s Social Physique Anxiety and Visual Attention

in Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal

Click name to view affiliation

Doris BazziniDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA

Search for other papers by Doris Bazzini in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
*
,
Chris DickinsonDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA

Search for other papers by Chris Dickinson in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
,
Alison N. CookeDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA
Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Search for other papers by Alison N. Cooke in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
,
Amanda PepperDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA

Search for other papers by Amanda Pepper in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
,
Jessica UdryDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA
Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Search for other papers by Jessica Udry in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
, and
Sidney MurrayDepartment of Psychology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA
Department of Behavior, Cognition and Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC, USA

Search for other papers by Sidney Murray in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMedClose
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2021-0045
Keywords:
sexualization of women’s sports; body concerns; self-objectification; eye-tracking
First Published Online:
04 Apr 2022
In Print:
Volume 30: Issue 2
Page Range:
123–132
Restricted access

Media images depicting idealized female physiques have been shown to heighten body dissatisfaction and body objectification. A potentially buffering factor in media exposure are depictions of female athletes performing their sports, which are associated with reduced objectification. These findings have not been extended to social physique anxiety (SPA), a heightened concern that one’s body does not meet comparative standards of physicality and beauty. Sixty-nine college-aged women reported levels of SPA following exposure to images of the same female professional athletes performing their sport, or in a sexualized pose. Visual attention to body parts on the images was measured via an eye tracker to explore whether fixations corresponded with the experience of SPA. Performance images lowered feelings of SPA relative to sexual images, and induced a lesser percentage of time visually fixating on the head/face, and more time fixating on arms and legs, relative to sexual images of the athletes. No differences emerged for fixations on the torso across conditions. Exploratory mediation models were also conducted to explore the influence of visual attention on the relationship between image type and SPA. These findings are considered in light of the nature of objectifying images of women and the importance of promoting empowering images to audiences.

  • Collapse
  • Expand

Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal

Cover Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal

  • Aparicio-Martinez, P., Perea-Moreno, A.J., Martinez-Jimenez, M.P., Redel-Macías, M.D., Pagliari, C., & Vaquero-Abellan, M. (2019). Social media, thin-ideal, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes: An exploratory analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(21), 4177. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph1621417

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Atalay, A., & Gençöz, T. (2008). Critical factors of social physique anxiety: Exercising and body image satisfaction. Behaviour Change, 25(3), 178–188. https://doi.org/10.1375/bech.25.3.178

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Aubrey, J.S., & Gerding, A. (2015). The cognitive tax of self-objectification examining sexually objectifying music videos and female emerging adults’ cognitive processing of subsequent advertising. Journal of Media Psychology, 27, 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a0001

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bernard, P., Gervais, S., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., & Klein, O. (2015). Body parts reduction and self-objectification in the objectification of sexualized bodies. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 28, 39–61.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blechert, J., Nickert, T., Caffier, D., & Tuschen-Caffier, B. (2009). Social comparison and its relation to body dissatisfaction in bulimia nervosa: Evidence from eye movements. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71(8), 907–912. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181b4434d

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cash, T.F., Santos, M.T., & Williams, E.F. (2005). Coping with body-image threats and challenges: Validation of the body image coping strategies inventory. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 58(2), 190–199. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/13506280902965599

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Conty, L., George, N., & Hietanen, J.K. (2016). Watching eyes effects: When others meet the self. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 45, 184–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.08.016

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Couture Bue, A.C. (2020). The looking glass selfie: Instagram use frequency predicts visual attention to high-anxiety body regions in young women. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, Article 106329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106329

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Daniels, E.A. (2009). Sex objects, athletes and sexy athletes: How media representations of women athletes can impact adolescent girls and college women. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24, 399–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558409336748

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Duncan, M. (1990). Sports photographs and sexual difference: Images of women and men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic games. Sociology of Sport Journal, 7, 22–43. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.7.1.22

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Economos, N. (2016, December 20). Serena Williams reveals struggle with Body IMAGE: ‘I felt I was too strong.’ https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/celebrity/serena-williams-reveals-struggle-with-body-image-i-felt-i-was-too-strong-20161220-gtf1j2.html

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Education Amendments Act of 1972, 20 U.S.C. §§1681–1688. (2018). Title IX (Education Amendments Act of 1972, 2018).

  • ESPN.com. (2020, March). Tennis: Did you know? The best Serena Williams stats. https://www.espn.com/tennis/story/_/id/28956757/did-know-best-serena-williams-stats

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ewing, L., Rhodes, G., & Pellicano, E. (2010). Have you got the look? Gaze direction affects judgements of facial attractiveness. Visual Cognition, 18, 321–330. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/13506280902965599

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fernández-Bustos, J.G., Infantes-Paniagua, Á., Gonzalez-Martí, I., & Contreras-Jordán, O.R. (2019). Body dissatisfaction in adolescents: Differences by sex, BMI and type and organisation of physical activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(17), Article 3109. https://doi-org.proxyau.wrlc.org/10.3390/ijerph16173109

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fink, J.S., & Kensicki, L.J. (2002). An imperceptible difference: Visual and textual constructions of femininity in Sports Illustrated and Sports Illustrated for Women. Mass Communication & Society, 5, 317–339. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0503_5

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Frederick, C., & Morrison, C. (1996). Social physique anxiety: Personality constructs, motivations, exercise attitudes, and behaviors. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82, 963–972. https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpms.1996.82.3.963

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Frederickson, B.L., & Roberts T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Freeman, R., Touyz, S., Sara, G., Rennie, C., Gordon, E., & Beumont, P. (1991). In the eye of the beholder: Processing body shape information in anorexic and bulimic patients. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10(6), 709–714. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.7.1.22

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Frisby, C. (2017). Sexualization and objectification of female athletes on sports magazine covers: Improvement, consistency or decline? International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 7, 1–11.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gammage, K.L., Ginis, K.A.M., & Hall, C.R. (2004). Self-Presentational Efficacy: Its influence on social anxiety in an exercise context. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(2), 179–190.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gervais, S.J., Holland, A.M., & Dodd, M.D. (2013). My eyes are up here: The nature of the objectifying gaze toward women. Sex Roles, 69, 557–570. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0316-x

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Glashouwer, K.A., Jonker, N.C., Thomassen, K., & de Jong, P.J. (2016). Take a look at the bright side: Effects of positive body exposure on selective visual attention in women with high body dissatisfaction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 83, 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.006

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hagger, M.S., & Stevenson, A. (2010). Social physique anxiety and physical self-esteem: Gender and age effects. Psychology and Health, 25, 89–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440903160990

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hart, E.A., Leary, M.R., & Rejeski, W.J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.11.1.94

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hausenblas, H.A., & Fallon, E.A. (2002), Relationship among body image, exercise behavior, and exercise dependence symptoms. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10071

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hill, A., & Williams, J. (1998). Psychological health in a non-clinical sample of obese women. International Journal of Obesity, 22, 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800631

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Homan, K. (2010). Athletic-ideal and thin-ideal internalization as prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Body Image, 7, 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.02.004

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kaestner, R., & Xu, X. (2010). Title IX, girls’ sports participation, and adult female physical activity and weight. Evaluation Review, 34, 52–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X09353539

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kane, M., LaVoi, N., & Fink, J. (2013). Exploring elite female athletes’ interpretations of sport media images: A window into the construction of social identity and “selling sex” in women’s sports. Communication & Sport, 1, 269–298. https://doi/10.1177/2167479512473585

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kane, M.J. (2011, July 27). Sex sells sex, not women’s sports. The Nation.

  • Kano, F., & Tomonaga, M. (2009). How chimpanzees look at pictures: A comparative eye-tracking study. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 276(1664), 1949–1955. https://doi-org.proxy006.nclive.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1811

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kim, K., & Sagas, M. (2014). Athletic or sexy? A comparison of female athletes and fashion models in Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues. Gender Issues, 31, 123–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-014-9121-2

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewis, D.C., Medvedev, K., & Seponski, D.M. (2011). Awakening to the desires of older women: Deconstructing ageism within the fashion magazines. Journal of Aging Studies, 25, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2010.08.016

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Linder, J.R., & Daniels, E.A. (2018). Sexy vs. sporty: The effects of viewing media images of athletes on self-objectification in college students. Sex Roles, 78, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0774-7

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lykins, A.D., Ferris, T., & Graham, C.A. (2014). Body region dissatisfaction predicts attention to body regions on other women. Body Image, 11(4), 404–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.05.003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McAuley, E., & Burman, G. (1993). The social physique anxiety scale: Construct validity in adolescent females. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 25(9), 1049–1053. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199309000-00013

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Midgley, C., DeBues-Stafford, G., Lockwood, P., & Thai, S. (2021). She needs to see it to be it: The importance of same-gender athletic role models. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 85, 142–160. https://doi-org.proxy006.nclive.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01209-y

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mulgrew, K.E.& Tiggemann, M. (2018). Form or function: Does focusing on body functionality protect women from body dissatisfaction when viewing media images? Journal of Health Psychology, 23, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316655471

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nezlek, J.B., Krohn, W., Wilson, D., & Maruskin, L. (2015). Gender differences in reactions to the sexualization of athletes. Journal of Social Psychology, 155, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2014.959883

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • O’Toole, A., Phillips, J.P., Weimer, S., Roark, D., Ayyad, J., Barwick, R., & Dunlop, J. (2010). Recognizing people from dynamic and static faces and bodies: Dissecting identity with a fusion approach. Vision Research. 51, (pp. 74–83). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2010.09.035

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ouyang, Y., Luo, J., Teng, J., Zhang, T., Wang, K., & Li, J. (2021). Research on the influence of media internalized pressure on college students’ sports participation—Chained intermediary analysis of social physique anxiety and weight control self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1250. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.654690

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Palanica, A., & Itier, R.J. (2012). Attention capture by direct gaze is robust to context and task demands. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 36, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-011-0128-z

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Patrick, H., Neighbours, C., & Knee, C.R. (2004). Appearance-related social comparisons: The role of contingent self-esteem and self-perceptions of attractiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 501–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203261891

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Petrie, T.A. (1996). Differences between male and female college lean sport athletes, nonlean sport athletes, and nonathletes on behavioral and psychological indices of eating disorders. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8(2), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209608406478

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Prnjak, K., Pemberton, S., Helms, E., & Phillips, J.G. (2019). Reactions to ideal body shapes. Journal of General Psychology, 147(4), 361–380. https://doiorg.proxy006.nclive.org/10.1080/00221309.2019.1676190

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roberts, T.A., & Gettman, J.Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification. Sex Roles, 51, 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000032306.20462.22

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Robinson, A., & Lewis, V. (2015). Social physique anxiety: An exploration of influences of sporting confidence and participation. Journal of Applied Behavioral Research, 21, 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12046

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1984). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 267–307.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Salwen, M.B., & Wood, N. (1994). Depictions of female athletes on Sports Illustrated covers, 1957–1989. Journal of Sport Behavior, 17(2), 98.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Selker, R. (2017). medmod: Simple mediation and moderation analysis. R package version 1.1.0. https://cran.r-project.org/package=medmod

  • Shugart, H.A. (2003). She shoots, she scores: Mediated constructions of contemporary female athletes in coverage of the 1999 US women’s soccer team. Western Journal of Communication, 67(1), 1–31. https://doi:10.1080/10570310309374756

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Strick, M., Holland, R.W., & van Knippenberg, A. (2008). Seductive eyes: Attractiveness and direct gaze increase desire for associated objects. Cognition, 106, 1487–1496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.05.008

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Thompson, A.M., & Chad, K.E. (2002). The relationship of social physique anxiety to risk for developing an eating disorder in young females. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 31(2), 183–189. https://doi-org.proxyau.wrlc.org/10.1016/s1054-139x(01)00397-4

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J.K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43(Pt 3), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1348/0144665031752925

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2015). “Exercise to be fit, not skinny”: The effect of fitspiration imagery on women’s body image. Body Image, 15, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 1142 1067 128
Full Text Views 49 49 8
PDF Downloads 73 73 11