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Volume 24 (2016): Issue 2 (Oct 2016)

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Women Referees’ Experiences Officiating Rugby Union

Christopher F. Baldwin and Roger Vallance

Five women rugby union referees who officiated in the New South Wales (NSW) suburban rugby union premiership were interviewed about their experiences refereeing men. After a comprehensive analysis of the interview transcripts, four themes emerged around barriers and challenges to women’s participation in officiating, these themes are: 1) Barriers experienced by women rugby union referees; 2) Success in refereeing male rugby union players; 3) Challenges of women participating in refereeing rugby union; 4) Ways to bring about change. The findings imply that there is discrimination and marginalization present in women’s sports officiating at male games which is in line with the literature in women’s sports coaching. The findings also suggest that women have to be superior and elite athletes with a history of success to be appointed to the best male rugby union matches. Support both on and off the field is crucial to the development and success of female referees.

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Volume 24 (2016): Issue 1 (Apr 2016)

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The Effects of a Running Intervention on the Physical Self-Concept of Obese Novice Adult Female Runners

Brigid Byrd, Tamara Hew-Butler, and Jeffrey J. Martin

The purpose of the study was to assess changes in multidimensional physical self-concept (PSC) over time of novice obese female runners participating in a 10-week running intervention. Multidimensional Physical Self-Concept was assessed at pre- and postintervention times and 3 months postintervention. A repeated measures MANOVA was significant, F (2, 7) = 8.82, p < .05. Follow-up tests indicated that 4 of the 9 PSCs significantly changed from Time 1 to Time 2 (p < .05) in the expected directions for physical activity (t = -2.45; h2 = 1.0), body fat (t = Ò3.21; h2 = 0.78), endurance (t = -3.75; h2 = 0.90), and general physical (t = -2.36; h2 = 0.99) self-concepts and these positive changes were maintained 3 months later at Time 3. We found that a 10-week running program appeared to produce positive changes in physical self-concept. Importantly, these positive changes were sustained for 3 months past the end of the intervention. These findings suggest that women running programs may be a viable way to increase physical self-concept, and sustain such positive changes in months following.

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Effects of Peer-Education on Knowledge of the Female Athlete Triad Among High School Track and Field Athletes: A Pilot Study

Katie N. Brown, Heidi J. Wengreen, Katherine A. Beals, and Edward M. Heath

This quasi-experimental study aimed to assess risk for the female athlete triad (Triad) and pilot a peer-led Triad educational intervention. Twenty-nine female high school track and field athletes (N = 29) at one high school in the western United States consented to participate. Participants were weighed and measured, and completed pre- and postsurveys that included Triad risk factor questions and 10 questions assessing Triad knowledge. 54% of athletes reported current menstrual irregularity; 7% reported a history of stress fractures. Significant increases in Triad knowledge were observed pre- to postintervention (4.7 ± 2.6 to 7.7 ± 1.78 out of 10; p < .0001). Triad education was generally accepted and enjoyed by participants; however, 86% preferred that a coach or other adult provide education instead of a peer.

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The Experience of Competition in Same- Versus Mixed-Sex Team Sports

Joseph A. Knutson and Francis T. McAndrew

It is not yet clear how the enjoyment of playing a sport is related to the degree of involvement an athlete feels in a game. This issue was examined in two field studies and one laboratory experiment focusing on how men and women experience competition on mixed-sex and single-sex sports teams, with a greater emphasis on the experience of women in these situations. The results showed that while the mean enjoyment levels for women in mixed-sex and single-sex games were not different, individual women usually display a preference for either mixed-sex or single-sex teams. The results also revealed that women felt more involved on single-sex teams and that both men and women passed to men more often in mixed-sex games. Future studies should look at possible differences between men and women in the sources of the rewards derived from competition.

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Experiencing Flow in a Workplace Physical Activity Intervention for Female Health Care Workers: A Longitudinal Comparison between Football and Zumba

Anne-Marie Elbe, Svein Barene, Katharina Strahler, Peter Krustrup, and Andreas Holtermann

Flow is a rewarding psychological state that motivates individuals to repeat activities. This study explored healthcare workers’ flow experiences during a workplace exercise intervention. Seventy-nine females were assigned to either a 12-week football or Zumba exercise intervention and their flow experiences were assessed at the beginning, midway and at the end of the intervention. The results showed that both intervention groups experienced medium levels of flow and an increase in flow values over time. A significant positive correlation between experiencing flow midway through the intervention and adherence to regular physical activity 18 weeks after the end of the intervention was found. Furthermore, repeated measures throughout the intervention period showed a significantly different development of flow values over time for the adherers and nonadherers. Flow therefore may be of importance for adherence to regular workplace physical activity. Future research needs to investigate the importance of flow in other physical activity settings, especially also for male participants.

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An Exploration of Experiences of Female Participants in Power and Performance Sports

Stacia Ming, Duncan Simpson, and Daniel Rosenberg

Throughout the history of sport, men have played a leading role in its organization, function, purpose, and exposition (Hargreaves, 2000). Women’s sport participation has drastically risen over the past 40 years and ample new opportunities have emerged within the sport realm for women, which are attributed to a collection of incentives, but chiefly resulting from the passage of Title IX (Coakley, 2009). Women are allowed to participate in physically intense, aggressive, and violent sports, often referred to as power and performance sports (Coakley, 2014), however, the occurrence of this form of sport involvement appears to run counterintuitive to traditionally accepted societal norms. Consequently, the intent of this research was to explore how female athletes experience, interpret, accept, tolerate, and or resist the presumed contradictory role adopted through participation in power and performance sports. For the purpose of this study, existential phenomenological interviews were conducted that yielded in-depth personal accounts of the lived experience of 12 female athletes ranging in age from 21 to 50, representing a variety of power and performance sports (i.e., rugby, ice hockey, jiu-jitsu, kenpo, muay thai, kendo, boxing, and mixed martial arts). Analysis of the transcripts revealed a total of 381 meaning units that were further grouped into subthemes and major themes. This led to the development of a final thematic structure revealing four major dimensions that characterized these athletes’ experiences of power and performance sports: Physicality, Mentality, Opportunity, and Attraction & Alliance.

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Female NCAA Division I Athletic Directors: Experiences and Challenges

Elizabeth A. Taylor and Robin Hardin

This study examined the experiences and challenges of 10 female Division I athletic directors. Four themes emerged from the interviews: (a) lack of female role models; (b) females are not qualified to manage football programs; (c) scrutiny about (lack of) ability and experience, and (d) benefits of intercollegiate coaching experience. The findings of this study suggest these are the central causes for females’ inability to reach maximum career mobility in the intercollegiate athletics industry. Participants encouraged women trying to enter the intercollegiate athletics industry to find a mentor who can advocate for them as they navigate through their career. In addition, participants encouraged those entering the industry to gain experience in as many facets of the athletic department as possible.

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Further Reliability and Validity of the Heterosexist Attitudes in Sport—Lesbian Scale

Elizabeth M. Mullin

Homophobia and heterosexism in women’s collegiate athletics has been predominantly researched using qualitatively methodology (e.g., Blinde & Taub, 1992; Kauer & Krane, 2006; Krane 1996, 1997; Krane & Barber, 2003). Few researchers have examined the heterosexist attitudes from a quantitative perspective and few with a sport—specific questionnaire. The researcher examined whether on-going evidence of reliability and validity for the Heterosexist Attitudes in Sport—Lesbian scale (Mullin, 2013) questionnaire would be demonstrated. Female collegiate athletes (N = 239) from the mid-Atlantic region completed the HAS-L as well as a battery of questionnaires. Approximately 4 weeks later, participants completed the HAS-L again. The HAS-L was significantly related with the Attitudes toward Lesbians subscale of the Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Males—Short scale (Herek & McLemore, 2011) and other identified correlates of heterosexism, suggesting evidence of some criterion-related and convergent validity. Internal consistency and test-retest estimates ranged from .50–85 and .64–.91, respectively. The findings demonstrate good evidence of reliability and validity for the Cognitive/Affective subscale of the HAS-L. More research is necessary to better examine the behavioral subscales. Future researchers should consider making revisions of the Avoidance of the Lesbian Label subscale to achieve acceptable levels of reliability and validity.