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Change-of-Direction Performance and Its Deficits in Relation to Countermovement-Jump Height and Phase-Specific Performance Among Female Athletes

Naoyuki Yamashita, Daisuke Sato, and Takaaki Mishima

Purpose: Jump and linear sprint performances both correlate with pro-agility performance. However, correlation does not imply causation, and potential confounders may affect the correlation. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between change-of-direction (COD) performance and COD deficits (COD-D) in linear-sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ) -related performance using multiple stepwise linear-regression models. Methods: The study included 42 female national-level intercollegiate athletes. The 10- and 20-m linear-sprint and pro-agility times, COD-D, CMJ height, and phase-specific force production and rate of force development during eccentric unloading, eccentric braking, and the concentric phases of CMJ were measured. Stepwise linear-regression analyses were used to predict the factors related to COD and COD-D. Results: CMJ height was the sole predictor in the 10-m pro-agility model (adjusted R 2 = .234, P = .001). Modified Reactive Strength Index (standardized coefficient, −.710) and the lowest center-of-mass depth during the CMJ (standardized coefficient, .323) were predictors in the 20-m pro-agility model (adjusted R 2 = .330, P < .001). For the 10- and 20-m COD-D models, the rate of force development at 30 and 60 milliseconds, respectively, during the concentric phase was the only predictor of performance (adjusted R 2 = .183, P = .003 and .237, P = .001, respectively). Conclusions: These results suggest that athletes should concentrate on improving their CMJ height, increasing their ability to lower their center of mass more deeply, and increasing their instantaneous force-production abilities immediately after the eccentric braking phase of CMJ to improve their COD performance.

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Third-Man-Passing Small-Sided Games Induce Higher Anaerobic Energy Contributions Than Regular-Passing Small-Sided Games in Football Players

Woo-Hwi Yang, So-Young Park, Young-Je Kwak, Zi-Hyun Kim, and Sung-Hwan Choi

Purpose: This study compared the physiological profiles and energy-system contributions of trained football players engaged in regular-passing and third-man-passing small-sided games (SSGs) that included 4 versus 4 and a goalkeeper. Methods: Ten male trained football players participated in this crossover study. All participants were randomly assigned to either regular-passing SSG or third-man-passing SSG (4 vs 4 with a goalkeeper, 35-m × 17-m pitch size, and 6-min match duration). During these SSGs, physiological parameters including peak and mean heart rate, oxygen uptake ( V ˙ O 2 peak and V ˙ O 2 mean ), metabolic equivalents in V ˙ O 2 peak and V ˙ O 2 mean , and blood lactate concentrations (peak La and delta La [Δ La]), were measured. Energy contributions (oxidative [W Oxi], glycolytic [W Gly], and phosphagen [W PCr] systems) and Global Positioning System (GPS) variables (total distance, total acceleration counts, mean speed, and maximum speed) were also analyzed. Results: No significant differences in physiological parameters and GPS variables were found between regular- and third-man-passing SSGs. W Oxi in kilojoules and percentages was significantly higher during both SSGs than W PCr and W Gly (P < .0001, respectively). W PCr and W PCr + W Gly values during third-man-passing SSGs were significantly higher than those during regular-passing SSGs (P < .05). Additionally, low to moderate positive correlations were observed between W Oxi, W Gly in kilojoules, V ˙ O 2 peak , V ˙ O 2 mean , peak La, Δ La, total acceleration counts, and mean speed (r = .39–.64). Conclusions: Third-man-passing SSGs may be useful for increasing anaerobic capacity. More third-man-passing SSG sessions in preparation for football games may support high metabolic power and repeated powerful anaerobic performances in trained football players.

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Time–Motion and Technical–Tactical Aspects of Glory World Series Matches in the Male Middle-Heavy-Weight Category

Jean C. Calabrese, Renata G. Silva, Romulo Bertuzzi, and Adriano E. Lima-Silva

Purpose: To characterize the time structure of K1 kickboxing matches of Glory World Series (Glory) and to determine potential differences between winners and losers. Methods: Seventeen matches of Glory 2019 (17 first rounds, 13 second rounds, and 8 third rounds) were video-analyzed to quantify (1) the time expended in high- and low-intensity activity and pauses, (2) the number and pattern of attacks, and (3) the number of effective attacks. Fighters were professional male athletes (age 27.9 [2.7] y) of the middle-weight category (85 kg). The number and the pattern of attacks and the number of effective attacks were compared between winners and losers. Results: The mean times expended in high- and low-intensity activity and pauses were 234.6 (133.9) seconds, 97.4 (60.1) seconds, and 36.0 (19.9) seconds, respectively, resulting in an effort-to-pause ratio of ∼1.8:1. Compared with losers, winners presented (1) a greater number of attacks in the second round (P = .004) and entire match (P = .009), (2) a greater number of attacks containing 3 attacks in sequence in the second round (P = .001) and attacks containing >3 attacks in the third round (P = .049), and (3) a greater number of effective attacks in the second round (P = .011) and entire match (P = .008). Conclusions: The findings of the present study indicate that K1 kickboxing in Glory matches presents a ∼1.8:1 effort-to-pause ratio and that winners perform more attacks, effective attacks, and attacks in sequence. These data provide useful insights to improve the training specificity of kickboxing athletes.

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Habituation Does Not Change Running Economy in Advanced Footwear Technology

Lars C. Schwalm, Dominik Fohrmann, Marcelle Schaffarczyk, Thomas Gronwald, Steffen Willwacher, and Karsten Hollander

Purpose: This study aimed to compare running economy across habituated and nonhabituated advanced footwear technology (AFT) in trained long-distance runners. Methods: A total of 16 participants completed up to six 5-minute trials in 1 to 3 pairs of their own habituated shoes and 3 different and standardized AFTs at individual marathon pace. We measured oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production and expressed running economy as oxygen uptake (in milliliters oxygen per kilogram per minute), oxygen cost of transport (oxygen per kilogram per minute), energetic cost (in watts per kilogram), and energetic cost of transport (in joules per kilogram per kilometer). We used linear mixed-effect models to evaluate differences. Relative shoe weight and shoe mileage (distance worn during running) were covariates. Results: Forty-eight standardized and 29 individual AFT conditions were measured (mileage 117.0 [128.8] km, range 0–522 km; 25 habituated 135.7 [129.2] km, range 20–522 km; 4 nonhabituated 0 [0] km, range 0–0 km). Rating of perceived exertion, blood [La], and respiratory exchange ratio ranged from 9 to 15, 1.11 to 4.54 mmol/L, and 0.76 to 1.01. There was no effect for habituation on energetic cost of transport (t habituation = −.232, P = .409, b = −0.006; 95% CI, −0.058 to 0.046) or other running economy metrics. Neither shoe weight nor shoe mileage had an effect. Conclusions: Our results suggest that habituation to AFTs does not result in greater benefits in the use of AFTs. This means that implementation in training may not be needed, even if we cannot rule out any other possible benefits of habituation at this stage, such as adaptation of the musculoskeletal system.

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Making the Invisible, Visible: An Exploration of Track-and-Field Coaches’ Perspectives of Their Planning Processes

Karen L. Johns, Paul Potrac, and Philip R. Hayes

Purpose: The traditional understanding of how coaches plan for sporting performance is rooted in the assumption that coaches create periodized plans underpinned by physiological principles, thereby providing scientific credibility to their work. In contrast, there remains a paucity of literature exploring how coaches understand or think about their planning practices. The purpose of this study was to generate new knowledge regarding what information coaches actually consider within their planning processes and how they actually approach the task of planning. Method: Using rigorous, in-depth interviews, this study examined athletics coaches’ understandings of their everyday planning practices, in an attempt to contribute to narrowing the gap between academic research and real-world application. Twenty-eight highly experienced, high-performance track-and-field coaches based in England (female, n = 1; male, n = 27) were recruited. The coaches were from the throwing disciplines (n = 10) and endurance running (n = 18). Coaches were interviewed about their planning process, using a maximum of 3 semistructured interviews per coach, spaced across a full athletics season. In total, this generated 68 hours of data. Results: The analysis demonstrated that, while the participant coaches utilized the principles of periodization, their planning activities were not limited to this issue. The findings highlighted how the coaches conceptualized successful athletic performance in a holistic way; that is, planning is multifaceted in nature. Conclusion: This study presents a holistic picture of the complexity of coaches’ planning, detailing the considerable time and attention given to planning for athletes’ psychological, personal, and social development, to enhance athlete performance and development.

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The Training and Development Process for a Multiple-Grand-Slam Finalist in Tennis

Thomas A. Haugen, Caroline Ruud, Silvana Bucher Sandbakk, Øyvind Sandbakk, and Espen Tønnessen

Purpose: To investigate the training and development process of a multiple-Grand-Slam finalist. Methods: A mixed-methods case-study design was used to capture the quantitative and qualitative aspects related to the training and successful development process. We used a 3-step data-collection process and pragmatic analyses of (1) training history based on logs, plans, and questionnaires; (2) in-depth semistructured interviews with the player’s head coach/father, physical coach, and team administrator/mother; and (3) systematic quality assurance through negotiation among researchers and all key informants, including the player. Results: The player’s exceptional performance level was achieved by a progressive, nonlinear increase in annual training load during childhood and early youth, stabilizing at 800 sessions and 1250 to 1300 hours per year at the age of 19. The annual tennis-specific training plateaued at ∼750 hours from the age of 15, and 60 to 80 matches were played in most of the analyzed years. Point-play accounted for approximately 50% of the total amount of specific tennis training, clearly ahead of ground strokes (∼30%), serve/return (∼15%), and smash/volley (∼5%). Physical-conditioning hours increased 5-fold from 12 to 19 years, before stabilizing at ∼500 hours at senior age. Key success factors included the athlete’s multidimensional sports talent, discipline, and inner drive; a highly dedicated father and tennis-enthusiastic family; and strong support from a complementary and interdisciplinary performance team. Conclusion: This study provides novel information regarding the training and development process for a world-leading tennis player, providing a point of departure for the development of future talents.

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Chill Without Thrill: A Crossover Study on Whole-Body Cryotherapy and Postmatch Recovery in High-Level Youth Basketball Players

Marco Pernigoni, Andrea Perazzetti, Mattia Digno, Antonio Tessitore, Sigitas Kamandulis, and Daniele Conte

Purpose: To assess the effect of whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) on postmatch recovery in basketball. Methods: Using a crossover design, 17 youth male players (age 16.2 [1.2] y, stature 190.5 [9.4] cm, body mass 79.2 [9.6] kg, experience 9.9 [3.9] y) completed 2 simulated matches, followed by WBC (4 min, −75 to − 85 °C) or a placebo intervention (CON). Countermovement-jump height, change-of-direction performance, 10- and 20-m sprint times, heart-rate variability (log-transformed squared root of the mean sum of the squared differences between R-R intervals [Ln-rMSSD]), muscle soreness, and perceived recovery (Perceived Recovery Status Scale [PRS]) were recorded at prematch, postmatch, postrecovery, and 24 hours postmatch. Additionally, Ln-rMSSD was recorded upon awakening on match day and the following morning. Results: Compared with CON, higher PRS values were reported in WBC at prematch and postrecovery (P ≤ .026), while no significant between-interventions differences were found for any other measure (P > .05). Regarding the effect of time, our findings revealed that 20-m sprint times, Ln-rMSSD, and PRS deteriorated in both interventions from prematch to postmatch (ie, acute changes, P ≤ .045), while muscle soreness worsened in WBC only (P ≤ .003). Conversely, countermovement-jump height, change-of-direction, and 10-m sprint performance were unaffected by match play in the acute phase (P > .05), while none of the investigated measures showed impairments at 24 hours postmatch, compared with prematch (P > .05). Conclusions: Overall, these findings suggest that WBC was mostly ineffective for improving postexercise recovery in the investigated sample, with benefits observed for perceived recovery being potentially influenced by the participants’ status at baseline (ie, higher prematch PRS scores in WBC compared with CON).

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Gaelic Games Players’ and Practitioners’ Perceptions of Recovery Strategies

Lorcan S. Daly, Ciarán Ó. Catháin, and David T. Kelly

Purpose: This study both investigated and compared Gaelic games players’ and practitioners’ perceptions of the importance of postexercise recovery strategies. Methods: Gaelic players (n = 1178 [n = 574 female], age 24.6 [6.6] y) and practitioners (n = 148 [n = 29 female], age 35.9 [8.7] y) completed a questionnaire assessing their perceptions of various postexercise recovery strategies (importance ranked out of 5 [1 “not important at all” to 5 “extremely important”]). Players were further categorized by playing standard into developmental (club/collegiate; n = 869) and national (intercounty; n = 309) levels and by sport: Gaelic football (n = 813), camogie/hurling (n = 342), and Gaelic handball (n = 23). Practitioners were categorized as sport coaches (n = 67), strength and conditioning staff (n = 34), nutrition staff (n = 15), and athletic rehabilitation staff (n = 32). Results: Gaelic players prevalently perceived sleep (76.4%), rehydration (72.5%), postexercise meal (48.4%), stretching (47.6%), active cool-down (25.1%), foam rolling (23.1%), and massage by therapist (22.6%) as “extremely important.” Practitioners prevalently perceived sleep (90.1%), rehydration (83.6%), postexercise meal (76.6%), daytime naps (36.2%), stretching (25.4%), discussion with teammates (24.6%), and getting into nature (19.4%) as “extremely important.” Conclusions: While strategies with well-documented efficacy such as sleep, nutrition, and rehydration were rated as most important, a distinct and possibly problematic disconnect exists between the perceived importance of many strategies and their empirically demonstrated effectiveness. For instance, active cool-downs and stretching were perceived as highly important despite prevailing evidence suggesting that their effects are often small in magnitude. Collectively, work promoting optimal recovery practices and aligning player-practitioner perspectives would be beneficial to maximize time and resource allocation and enhance player buy-in.

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Physical Conditioning and Functional Injury-Screening Profile of Elite Female Soccer Players: A Systematic Review

Maitane Ruiz-Rios, Igor Setuain, Eduardo L. Cadore, Mikel Izquierdo, and Ibai Garcia-Tabar

Purpose: To identify the physical conditioning and functional injury-screening characteristics of elite female soccer players. Methods: This review was prospectively registered (PROSPERO CRD4202346765). Searches were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science (from inception in March 2023 to July 2023). Updated searches were conducted in October 2023 and April 2024. Included studies were quantitative studies conducted on female soccer players. Main outcomes were functional and physical profiles. Screening, data extraction, and quality assessment (Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies and the Oxford Levels of Evidence scales) were performed. Mean differences between preseason and in-season testing periods were estimated by Hedges g effect size. Methods and results were reported according to PRISMA guidelines. Results: The search yielded 1727 articles, of which 10 were included. Overall methodological quality of the studies was strong, with a moderate level of evidence. Players exhibited mean maximal oxygen uptake of 52.6 (4.5) mL·min−1·kg−1, 20-m linear-sprint performance of 3.58 (0.18) seconds, countermovement jump of 31.0 (2.9) cm, unilateral countermovement jump of 14.4 (2.1) cm, and quadriceps and hamstring peak torque at 60°·s−1 of 133 (23) and 87 (17) N·m, respectively. Mean scores recorded during in-season were 2% to 22% better than in preseason (effect size: small to very large). Conclusions: This review provides valuable normative physical conditioning and functional injury-risk assessment data for elite female soccer players. Coaches and conditioning staff can use these insights to interpret their own records and optimize their training processes. Furthermore, this study identifies methodological limitations to address in future research.

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Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation Over the Primary Motor Cortex and Cerebellum Improves Balance and Shooting Accuracy in Elite Ice Hockey Players

Na Zhang, Michael A. Nitsche, Yu Miao, Zheng Xiong, Carmelo Mario Vicario, and Fengxue Qi

Purpose : To investigate the effects of transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) applied over the primary motor cortex (M1) and cerebellum on balance control and shooting accuracy in elite ice hockey players. Methods : Twenty-one elite ice hockey players underwent anodal tDCS over the M1 (a-tDCSM1), anodal tDCS over the cerebellum (a-tDCSCB), concurrent dual-site anodal tDCS over the M1 and the cerebellum (a-tDCSM1+CB), and sham stimulation (tDCSSHAM). Before and after receiving tDCS (2 mA for 15 min), participants completed an ice hockey shooting-accuracy test, Pro-Kin balance test (includes stance test and proprioceptive assessment), and Y-balance test in randomized order. Results : For static balance performance, the ellipse area in the 2-legged stance with eyes open and the 1-legged stance with the dominant leg significantly improved following a-tDCSM1, a-tDCSCB, and concurrent dual-site a-tDCSM1+CB, compared with tDCSSHAM (all P < .05, Cohen d = 0.64–1.06). In dynamic balance performance, the average trace error of the proprioceptive assessment and the composite score of the Y-balance test with the dominant leg significantly improved following a-tDCSM1 and concurrent dual-site a-tDCSM1+CB (all P < .05, Cohen d = 0.77–1.00). For the ice hockey shooting-accuracy test, shooting-accuracy while standing on the unstable platform significantly increased following a-tDCSM1 (P = .010, Cohen d = 0.81) and a-tDCSCB (P = .010, Cohen d = 0.92) compared with tDCSSHAM. Conclusion : tDCS could potentially be a valuable tool in enhancing static and dynamic balance and shooting accuracy on unstable platforms in elite ice hockey players.