The aim of the study was to modify the Amotivation Toward Exercise Scale-2 by dropping the outcome amotivation beliefs subscale while retaining the capacity, effort, value, and task characteristics amotivation beliefs. Data from 515 Greek nonexerciser adults aged 19–64 years and 399 Greek nonexerciser older adults aged 65–82 years, men and women, supported the latent four-factor structure of the Revised Amotivation Toward Exercise Scale-2 scores within each sample separately. The hierarchical model was also supported. Measurement invariance of Revised Amotivation Toward Exercise Scale-2 scores was supported across groups of gender, age, body mass index, and educational levels within adults and older adults. Configural measurement invariance supported a replicable factor structure across adults and older adults. Metric and strong invariance was supported across middle-aged and older adults but not between younger and older adults. Full measurement invariance was supported between younger and middle-aged adults.
Contextual Measurement of Sources of Exercise Amotivation: The Revised Amotivation Toward Exercise Scale-2
Symeon P. Vlachopoulos
Core-Temperature Responses at the 3-km World Aquatics Open-Water Swimming Masters Championships in Doha 2024
Chris J. Esh, Valentin Dablainville, Feriel Dalansi, Sayyam Kathuria, and Marco Cardinale
Purpose: This study aimed to characterize core-temperature (Tc) responses of swimmers competing at the 2024 3-km World Aquatics Masters Open Water Swimming Championships. Methods: Within a cross-sectional observational study design, swimmers (n = 48 [23 male, 25 female]) ingested a telemetric Tc pill 4 hours before their race. Water temperatures were 20.9 °C (male; mean wet-bulb-globe temperature 25.9 °C) and 20.5 °C (female; mean wet-bulb-globe temperature: 25.4 °C). Linear mixed models determined differences between males and females for race-start, mean in-race, and peak Tc. Random coefficient models determined relationships between (1) sex, race time, body mass index (BMI), body-mass change or age, and Tc peak; (2) sex, race time, BMI, body-mass change or age, and Tc nadir; (3) sex, Tc peak, BMI, body-mass change or age, and race time, and (4) sex, Tc peak, BMI, body-mass change, or age and race ranking. Results: The mean in-race Tc was 37.8 °C (36.1–38.8 °C); however, there were highly variable individual Tc responses (−3.1 to +2.7 °C). One swimmer experienced mild hypothermia (Tc ≤ 35.0 °C), and 5 exceeded 39.0 °C, a risk factor for heat-related illness. There were no statistical differences between males and females for race-start, mean, and peak Tc (P ≥ .243). Higher peak Tc was associated with faster race time (P = .05), higher race rank (P = .027), and higher BMI (P = .001). Conclusions: Highly variable Tc responses (−3.1 to +2.7 °C) were observed, demonstrating that organizers of mass-participation open-water swimming events should always be prepared for, and provide facilities to treat, swimmers experiencing cold-/heat-related health incidents during competition.
Effect of Target Differentiation, Prioritization, and Environmental Clutter on Quiet Eye Duration in First-Person Shooter Esports: A Brief Report Pilot Study
Brodie Hampshire and Ian Tyndall
The burgeoning prominence of esports underscores its increasing relevance in sport and performance psychology. To enhance its integration into scholarly discourse, established cognitive research paradigms should be applied. In this study, we focused on first-person shooter esports, identifying specific variables unique to this domain and examining their impact on quiet eye (QE) duration—an indicator strongly correlated with successful performance. Using eye-tracking equipment, we analyzed gaze data related to the QE, the final fixation point preceding a motor response. Our pilot sample (n = 9) participated in three block trials exploring the effects of environmental clutter, target differentiation, and target prioritization on QE duration. Paired t tests compared mean QE duration between experimental tasks and control trials with single targets. Although trend effects of environmental clutter and target prioritization were observed, none reached statistical significance. These findings echo certain aspects of the existing esports literature, particularly regarding the reduced prominence of QE in scenarios involving multiple targets. Acknowledging study limitations, we offer recommendations for future research to deepen understanding of cognitive processes and performance outcomes in esports.
Enhancing Executive Function in Children and Adolescents Through Motor Learning: A Systematic Review
Madison J. Richter, Hassan Ali, and Maarten A. Immink
Enhancing executive function in children and adolescents can have significant positive impact on their current and future daily lives. Upregulation of executive function associated with motor skill acquisition suggests that motor learning scenarios provide valuable developmental opportunities to optimize executive function. The present systematic review aimed to identify key motor learning features that contribute to executive function enhancement in children and adolescents. A January 2024 database search identified 62 eligible studies, involving a total of 4,163 children and adolescents, aged 3–17 years, from developmentally typical (35 studies) and atypical or clinical (27 studies) populations. Schools (51%), sports (22%), laboratory (11%), or home (5%) settings with 8- to 12-week programs for primarily fundamental or perceptual-motor skills but also sport, dance, and musical instrument skills were implemented to evaluate executive function outcomes in domains including working memory (55%), inhibitory control (55%), attention (48%), and cognitive flexibility (41%). Enhanced executive function was most frequently associated with gross and discrete or serial motor skill characteristics, closed or stationary regulatory environments, and variable practice conditions. Studies frequently omitted the assessment of motor learning outcomes or lacked sufficient methodological detail needed to classify motor skill and practice design features that might contribute to executive function enhancement.
Flight-Time Method Modified: Development of a Novel and More Accurate Method for Measuring Vertical Jump Height Using a Smartphone Application
Takuya Nishioka, Shota Yamaguchi, and Takayuki Inami
Purpose: The flight-time method (FT) is used for measuring vertical jump height (JH) in the field because of its convenience; however, FT overestimates JH when the lower limb is flexed at landing. Herein, we proposed a new method (ie, flight-time method modified [FTM]) to address the problem of FT and evaluate its validity and reliability. Methods: A total of 24 men performed 6 countermovement jumps on force plates (sampling rate: 1000 Hz) while being recorded with a smartphone high-speed camera at 240 frames·s–1. JH was calculated by the impulse–momentum method (IM), FT, and FTM. For FTM, the flight time and JH were calculated based on the displacement of the greater-trochanter marker using a smartphone application. Results: JH calculated using FT was significantly higher (P < .001) compared with JH calculated by IM; however, JH calculated by FTM showed no significant difference with JH calculated by IM. Furthermore, JH calculated by FTM, compared with JH calculated by FT (ρ = .882; 95% CI, .838–.914), exhibited a stronger, nearly perfect, and significantly positive correlation (ρ = .987; 95% CI, .982–.991) with JH calculated by IM and showed high reliability. Conclusions: The FTM proposed in this study had higher concurrent validity compared with FT and a high reliability for measuring countermovement JH because it was not affected by lower-extremity flexion at landing. Therefore, practitioners should consider using FTM as a convenient, low-cost, reliable, and more valid method for measuring JH in the field.
Foot–Ankle Mechanical Transmission: Age Effects and the Relation to Ankle Push-Off During Walking
Aubrey J. Gray, Kota Z. Takahashi, Howard E. Kashefsky, and Jason R. Franz
Older adults walk with less push-off power than younger adults. Principally attributed to plantar flexor dysfunction, growing evidence implicates interactions between the foot and ankle as critical for generating effective push-off. Our purposes were to measure age effects on foot–ankle mechanical transmission (FAMT, ie, the ratio between metatarsal phalangeal extension and medial gastrocnemius fascicle length change), and its association with ankle push-off during walking. We hypothesized that (1) FAMT would be lesser in older adults and (2) lesser FAMT would positively correlate with slower preferred speeds and reduced ankle push-off intensity. Fourteen younger adults (25 [6] y) and 15 older adults (71 [5] y) participated. Older adults had 45% to 48% lesser FAMT than younger adults from 0° to 30° metatarsal phalangeal extension—an age-related difference that was not evident from 30° to 60° metatarsal phalangeal extension. However, we did not find any significant correlations with walking outcomes. Assuming our findings can be replicated in future studies and represent a genuine phenomenon of relevance to the biomechanics of aging gait, we suspect that compensations may be discovered in older adults to explain this lack of significance. Future work should include measures of muscle activities and foot mechanics during walking and/or perform more controlled comparisons at fixed speeds.
Government Support, Community Recreation Facilities, and Physical Activity in China: A Cross-Sectional Socioecological Analysis
Jing Guan and Paul Downward
Background: In the context of rising noncommunicable diseases, Chinese authorities emphasize the need for local governments to provide public sports services to support physical activity (PA). Methods: Employing a socioecological theoretical framework, and drawing on a hierarchical data set synthesized from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, China Stock Market & Accounting Research Database, and Wind Financial Terminal from 2015, a multilevel analysis of the association between provincial government expenditure on culture, sports, and media from 12 provinces, the recreation facilities provided by 287 communities, and PA of n = 10,305 individuals is performed. The number of, and time allocated to, PAs undertaken as well as their METs equivalent in relation to World Health Organization guidelines are investigated. Results: Controlling for a large set of individual confounders, the results show that community recreation facilities and provincial government expenditure have a significant positive association with PA participation that exceeds health guidelines. Conclusions: The results confirm the importance of government support for sport and the provision of community sport and PA facilities in China. This has implications for public health policy generally including the Western context. It remains, however, that the cultural context of engagement also needs further consideration.
The Healthy and Active Fund: Lessons From the Evaluation Experiences of Community-Based Physical Activity Projects in Wales
Vasiliki Kolovou, Anna Kolosowska, Rochelle Embling, Niamh Mchugh, John Stewart Bradley, and Paul Pilkington
Background: The “Healthy and Active Fund” involved 17 community-based projects focused on the delivery of physical activity interventions, led by a variety of public and third sector organizations. As a novel, direct approach to capturing impact at this level, these organizations were encouraged to robustly evaluate and monitor their own project’s outcomes, with core funds allocated to this process. This study aimed to explore project experiences of planning and completing evaluation activities, to better understand how to support community-based practice improvement. Methods: In-depth semistructured interviews were completed with individuals who had supported their project’s evaluation. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to identify key facilitators and barriers associated with evaluation in this context. Results: Across 3 identified themes, participants (N = 15, 12 projects) referred to a need for greater organizational capacity and expertise, familiarity with evaluation methods, partnership-working, inclusivity, and flexibility, particularly when collecting data from project beneficiaries. Overarching program support (eg, case officers) was viewed as a valuable resource that was disrupted by COVID-19. Participants highlighted the resilience of their projects when engaging with evaluation processes and acknowledged wider learning across organization networks as a result of this success. Conclusions: This study shows that projects may benefit from closer support and external expertise for research and evaluation. There is willingness by third sector and public bodies to adopt research and evaluation methods into routine practice, but significant barriers persist. Future programs should continue to support adaptable approaches to evaluation at community-level, to better progress health and well-being goals for diverse populations.
Markerless Kinematic Data in the Frontal Plane Contributions to Movement Quality in the Single-Leg Squat Test: A Comparison and Decision Tree Approach
Juhyun Park, Yongwook Kim, Sujin Kim, and Kyuenam Park
Objective: The aim of this study is to compare kinematic data of the frontal trunk, pelvis, knee, and summated angles (trunk plus knee) among categorized grades using the single-leg squat (SLS) test, to classify the SLS grade, and to investigate the association between the SLS grade and the frontal angles using smartphone-based markerless motion capture. Methods: Ninety-one participants were categorized into 3 grades (good, reduced, and poor) based on the quality of the SLS test. An automated pose estimation algorithm was employed to assess the frontal joint angles during SLS, which were captured by a single smartphone camera. Analysis of variance and a decision tree model using classification and regression tree analysis were utilized to investigate intergroup differences, classify the SLS grades, and identify associations between the SLS grade and frontal angles, respectively. Results: In the poor group, each frontal trunk, knee, and summated angle was significantly larger than in the good group. Classification and regression tree analysis showed that frontal knee and summated angles could classify the SLS grades with a 76.9% accuracy. Additionally, the classification and regression tree analysis established cutoff points for each frontal knee (11.34°) and summated angles (28.4°), which could be used in clinical practice to identify individuals who have a reduced or poor grade in the SLS test. Conclusions: The quality of SLS was found to be associated with interactions among frontal knee and summated angles. With an automated pose estimation algorithm, a single smartphone computer vision method can be utilized to compare and distinguish the quality of SLS movement for remote clinical and sports assessments.
Spring-Mass Characteristics in Runners Before and After a 56-km Road Ultramarathon
Geoffrey T. Burns, Nicholas Tam, Nelleke G. Langerak, Ronald F. Zernicke, and Robert P. Lamberts
Ultramarathons are a unique model to study the effects of systemic fatigue in athletes. This investigation applied the spring-mass template to study runners before and 2 days after a road ultramarathon to characterize the effects of fatigue on systemic gait patterns. Overground kinetics were captured 7 days before and 2 days after the event in 14 runners. Traditional kinetic and spring-mass parameters were calculated, along with nonlinear regression-derived parameters and spring-mass model fit metrics. After the ultramarathon, vertical force magnitudes and loading rates were unchanged, but impact peaks increased (1.88 ± 0.08–1.95 ± 0.10 bodyweight). Ground contact times were modestly shorter (−3 ± 1 ms), resulting in increased leg stiffness (10.0 ± 0.5–10.3 ± 0.5 kN/m) with equivocal vertical stiffnesses. The deviation from the modeled spring-mass kinetics also increased (171.3 ± 15.0–181.4 ± 16.5 N). Overall, the systemic mechanical behaviors of the runners persisted despite the fatigue and stress induced by a road ultramarathon. These findings support previous observations that runners maintain gross mechanical behavior when fatigued with small compensatory changes in spatiotemporal and traditional spring-mass characteristics. However, these findings also suggest that the variability within that gross behavior may increase after stress, suggesting new opportunities for quantifying those deviations.