Purpose: To compare the pacing profiles of elite track athletes with intellectual impairments (II) and those with Down syndrome (DS) in 400- and 1,500-m track events. Methods: The pacing data of 67 elite runners participating in the final 400-m (both genders) and 1,500-m (only males) track events of the Global Games (2023) were analyzed. Runners competed in two classes: a class for runners with II (without DS) and a separate class for runners with DS. Results: For the 400-m event, male and female runners in both classes decelerated from the first segment (0–200 m) to the second segment (200–400 m) as the time main effect was significant (p < .001); however, the pacing strategy for both genders differed between the II and DS class as reported by the significant Gender × Class interaction effect (p < .001). The running velocity over the two segments of the race decreased more significantly for the II runners without DS. There was also a significant interaction effect for the 1,500-m race (p < .001). The DS runners show a more significant drop in running velocity over the split times of the race and with more varied fluctuations compared with the II runners without DS. Conclusion: This study highlights the significant differences in pacing between 400- and 1,500-m elite runners with II and with and without DS. Elite runners with DS run at an overall slower velocity and follow a significantly different pacing pattern compared with runners with II without DS. Our findings show that runners with DS are less able to regulate their exercise intensity over the race than runners with II without DS.
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Performance and Pacing Profiles of Competitive Track Events for Elite Athletes With Intellectual Impairment With and Without Additional Significant Impairments
Pieter Boer, Jan Burns, and Debbie Van Biesen
Validation of the 6-Minute Frame Running Test as a Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test for Adolescents and Young Adults With Cerebral Palsy
Emma Hjalmarsson, Arnoud Edelman Bos, Linnéa Corell, Annika Kruse, Rodrigo Fernandez-Gonzalo, Jessica Norrbom, Eva Pontén, Petra van Schie, Annemieke I. Buizer, and Ferdinand von Walden
Background: Individuals with cerebral palsy (CP) are at risk of poor health due to low aerobic fitness, yet valid assessment methods are limited, especially for individuals with severe CP. This study validated the 6-Minute Frame Running Test (6-MFRT) for assessing aerobic capacity in adolescents and young adults with CP. Method: Cardiorespiratory responses, blood lactate levels, and subjective exertion during the 6-MFRT were compared with data from the Frame Running Incremental Treadmill Test (FRITT) in 16 participants with CP, age 23 (6.5) years, with Gross Motor Function Classification System Levels II–V. Results: A strong correlation was found between peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in the 6-MFRT and FRITT (r = .95, p < .001) and between 6-MFRT distance and VO2peak (r = .71, p = .005). No significant difference in VO2peak was observed between tests (p = .186). Conclusion: The 6-MFRT is a field test for estimating aerobic capacity in frame-running athletes with CP.
Match-Running Differences Among International Regional Tournaments and the World Cup in Male Para-Footballers With Cerebral Palsy
Daniel Castillo, Aitor Iturricastillo, Javier Yanci, Raul Reina, and Matías Henríquez
The aim of this study was to provide a comparative analysis of running responses in official matches in different sport classes of football players with cerebral palsy considering the contextual factors of geographical competition and level. One hundred ninety-one international footballers with cerebral palsy divided according to the tournament geographical competition and level participated in this study. Higher medium- and high-intensity match-running responses were found for the Asia-Oceania tournament in comparison with the American, European, and world competitions. Similarly, players from the World Cup performed more moderate accelerations and decelerations compared with the players in the America’s Cup, and players competing in the Asia-Oceania region realized more moderate decelerations than in the America’s Cup. Thus, classifiers and coaches may consider the tournament level due to possible differences in the match’s physical demands regarding the class status allocation and the physical preparation for those competitions.
Adapted Physical Activity in the United States: Considerations for the (Near) Future
Justin A. Haegele and Joonkoo Yun
It is well known that IDEA (the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act) is overdue for reauthorization and, borrowing from Block and colleagues, it is important to consider what evidence we have to support adapted physical activity as a field in the United States beyond this federal mandate. We believe that these questions have gained further importance in the current geopolitical climate in the United States. With that, we use this editorial to reflect on the evidence and direction of our field, with the hope of sparking dialogue and encouraging others to think about the future of adapted physical activity. In this editorial, we discuss the importance of adapted physical activity as it relates to health and physical activity and school-based physical education, as well as philosophical/moral arguments for the field. We conclude the editorial by inviting others to join the conversation about other unique aspects of importance to the field of adapted physical activity in the United States.
“We’re All Here to Be Dancers Together”: Perspectives on Facilitating Dance Classes for Individuals With Parkinson’s
Jenna Magrath, Sarah J. Kenny, Meghan S. Ingstrup, Lindsay Morrison, Vanessa Paglione, Meghan H. McDonough, and Cari Din
Parkinson’s is a progressive neurological disorder impacting physical, cognitive, emotional, and sensory functions. Dance is a form of physical activity that can offer social, psychological, and physical benefits and enhance quality of life for individuals with Parkinson’s. This study explored program facilitators’ perceptions and experiences facilitating a community dance class for individuals with Parkinson’s through the lens of physical literacy. Six program facilitators (four instructors, one volunteer, and one musical accompanist) of a weekly community dance class participated in semistructured interviews. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, generating three themes: (a) Dance as tuning into one’s self: Enriching the body, mind, and spirit; (b) Everybody can dance: Feeling successful and fostering confidence; and (c) Looking forward to Tuesdays: Promoting connection, belonging, and community. This study provides insight into the teaching practices, as well as the design and facilitation of community dance classes for individuals with Parkinson’s.
Volume 42 (2025): Issue 2 (Apr 2025)
Influence of Physical Activity Interventions on Executive Functions for Down Syndrome: A Systematic Review
Nathan M. Scott, Daphne Schmid, Phillip D. Tomporowski, and T. Nicole Kirk
Although research has shown the benefit of physical activity (PA) on executive functions (EFs) in typically developing populations, the efficacy of such interventions among individuals with Down syndrome (DS) is less understood. Therefore, the aim of the review was to systematically examine the empirical literature on the influence of PA interventions on EF in individuals with DS. The search strategy identified 10 eligible articles, which were systematically reviewed following PRISMA guidelines. Relevant data (i.e., study characteristics and major findings) were charted, and risk of bias was assessed. Study findings indicate some positive effects of PA on the EF of individuals with DS, namely, inhibition and cognitive shifting. However, risk-of-bias assessment uncovered critical methodological issues that make results difficult to interpret. Taken together, results suggest that while PA interventions may be beneficial, more high-quality intervention studies are needed to further elucidate the potential impact on the EF of individuals with DS.
Inequality as Natural Phenomenon: A Critical Reflection on Physical Education for Disabled Students Through the Lens of Ableism
Maria Luíza Tanure Alves, Michelle Grenier, and Martin Giese
Physical education (PE) has failed to meet the inclusive ideals of equity and participation for all students. Questions on the role of PE in the schools and its official knowledge, curriculum, and values are critical concerns given the exclusion experienced by disabled students. In this viewpoint, we propose a critical reflection on school PE and the role of ableism constraining the engagement of disabled students in PE and sports. Our discussion is grounded in a critical disability-studies framework and takes two major points into account: (a) the legitimate knowledge within PE and (b) its underlying ability system. The pursuit of equitable education for disabled students demands consideration not only of meaningful pedagogical practices but, above all, of meaningful knowledge provision. Such changes mandate the recognition and affirmation of disabled identity and their individual and collective expression through PE and sports.
Assessing the Support Needs of People With Disability Wanting to Participate in Physical Activity: A Scoping Review
Jessica Hill, Emily McDormand, Rachael Watson, and Sjaan Gomersall
Regular participation in physical activity (PA) has been linked to improved health and well-being outcomes. People with disability, however, are faced with many barriers and often require support to participate. This scoping review aimed to understand how the support needs of people with disability wanting to participate in PA are assessed. A scoping review was conducted as per the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) extension for Scoping Reviews, which involved the review of four databases. A total of 35 papers met the inclusion criteria for this review, which identified 11 standardized assessment tools. All tools measured support needs within a general health and participation assessment and included items relevant to PA. No tools were found specific to PA participation. This review suggests that a PA-specific assessment tool would be valuable in measuring the support needs of people with disability with a focus on participation-based outcomes.
Athletic Career Pathways in Para Sport: An Exploration of Para Track and Field
Rebecca Peake, Larissa E. Davies, and Adele Doran
Few studies have applied sport development models depicting Para athlete career development. This study utilizes the Athletic Career Pathways in Paralympic Sports framework, developed to respond to the limitations of established sport development models when applied to Para sport. Employing a mixed-methods design informed by critical realism, this study explores the career trajectories of Para track-and-field athletes while assessing the framework’s broader applicability. The findings challenge the linear pathway of traditional models, and a revised framework is presented offering flexibility to respond to the Para sport-specific and cultural context. The importance of schooling type, accessibility to nondisabled sports, and the need for specialist equipment in Para track and field offer further original insights into a Para athlete’s trajectory and validates the need for a Para sport-specific athlete career development model. These findings can be used to develop bespoke systems to support Para track-and-field athletes throughout their career trajectory.