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Sled Towing: The Optimal Overload for Peak Power Production

Andrea Monte, Francesca Nardello, and Paola Zamparo

Purpose:

The effects of different loads on kinematic and kinetic variables during sled towing were investigated with the aim to identify the optimal overload for this specific sprint training.

Methods:

Thirteen male sprinters (100-m personal best: 10.91 ± 0.14 s) performed 5 maximal trials over a 20-m distance in the following conditions: unloaded and with loads from 15% to 40% of the athlete’s body mass (BM). In these calculations the sled mass and friction were taken into account. Contact and flight times, stride length, horizontal hip velocity (vh), and relative angles of hip, knee, and ankle (at touchdown and takeoff) were measured step by step. In addition, the horizontal force (Fh) and power (Ph) and maximal force (Fh0) and power (Ph0) were calculated.

Results:

vh, flight time, and step length decreased while contact time increased with increasing load (P < .001). These variables changed significantly also as a function of the step number (P < .01), except between the 2 last steps. No differences were observed in Fh among loads, but Fh was larger in sled towing than in unloaded. Ph was unaffected by load up to +20%BM but decreased with larger loads. Fh0 and Ph0 were achieved at 20%BM. Up to 20%BM, no significant effects on joint angles were observed at touchdown and takeoff, while at loads >30%BM joint angles tended to decrease.

Conclusion:

The 20%BM condition represents the optimal overload for peak power production—at this load sprinters reach their highest power without significant changes in their running technique (eg, joint angles).

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Energetics of Shuttle Runs: The Effects of Distance and Change of Direction

Paola Zamparo, Ivan Zadro, Stefano Lazzer, Marco Beato, and Luigino Sepulcri

Shuttle runs can be used to study the physiological responses in sports (such as basketball) characterized by sprints (accelerations/decelerations) and changes of direction.

Purpose:

To determine the energy cost (C) of shuttle runs with different turning angles and over different distances (with different acceleration/deceleration patterns).

Methods:

Nine basketball players were asked to complete 6 intermittent tests over different distances (5, 10, 25 m) and with different changes of direction (180° at 5 and 25 m; 0°, 45°, 90°, and 180° at 10 m) at maximal speed (v ≍ 4.5 m/s), each composed by 10 shuttle runs of 10-s duration and 30-s recovery; during these runs oxygen uptake (VO2), blood lactate (Lab), and C were determined.

Results:

For a given shuttle distance (10 m) no major differences where observed in VO2 (~33 mL · min−1 · kg−1), Lab (~3.75 mM), and C (~21.2 J · m−1 · kg−1) when the shuttle runs were performed with different turning angles. For a given turning angle (180°), VO2 and Lab were found to increase with the distance covered (VO2 from 26 to 35 mL · min−1 · kg−1; Lab from 0.7 to 7.6 mM) while C was found to decrease with it (from 29.9 to 10.6 J · m−1 · kg−1); the relationship between C and d (m) is well described by C = 92.99 × d 0.656, R 2 = .971.

Conclusions:

The metabolic demands of shuttle tests run at maximal speeds can be estimated based on the running distance, while the turning angle plays a minor role in determining C.

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Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A Review

Roberto Baldassarre, Marco Bonifazi, Paola Zamparo, and Maria Francesca Piacentini

Context: Although the popularity of open-water swimming (OWS) events has significantly increased in the last decades, specific studies regarding performance of elite or age-group athletes in these events are scarce. Purpose: To analyze the existing literature on OWS. Methods: Relevant literature was located via computer-generated citations. During August 2016, online computer searches on PubMed and Scopus databases were conducted to locate published research. Results: The number of participants in ultraendurance swimming events has substantially increased in the last 10 y. In elite athletes there is a higher overall competitive level of women than of men. The body composition of female athletes (different percentage and distribution of fat tissue) shows several advantages (more buoyancy and less drag) in aquatic conditions that determine the small difference between males and females. The main physiological characteristics of open-water swimmers (OW swimmers) are the ability to swim at high percentage of V ˙ O 2 max  (80–90%) for many hours. Furthermore, to sustain high velocity for many hours, endurance swimmers need a high propelling efficiency and a low energy cost. Conclusion: Open-water races may be characterized by extreme environmental conditions (water temperature, tides, currents, and waves) that have an overall impact on performance, influencing tactics and pacing. Future studies are needed to study OWS in both training and competition.

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The Effects of Leg Kick on Swimming Speed and Arm-Stroke Efficiency in the Front Crawl

Ricardo Peterson Silveira, Flávio Antônio de Souza Castro, Pedro Figueiredo, João Paulo Vilas-Boas, and Paola Zamparo

Purpose:

To analyze the effects of swimming pace on the relative contribution of leg kick to swimming speed and to compare arm-stroke efficiency (ηF) assessed when swimming with the arms only (SAO) and while swimming front crawl (FCS) using individual and fixed adjustments to arm-stroke and leg-kick contribution to forward speed.

Methods:

Twenty-nine master swimmers (21 men, 8 women) performed SAO and FCS at 6 self-selected speeds from very slow to maximal. The average swimming speed (v), stroke frequency (SF), and stroke length (SL) were assessed in the central 10 m of the swimming pool. Then, a 2nd-order polynomial regression was used to obtain values of v at paired SF. The percentage difference in v between FCS and SAO, for each paired SF, was used to calculate the relative contributions of the arm stroke (AC) and leg kick (LC) to FCS. Then ηF was calculated using the indirect “paddle-wheel” approach in 3 different ways: using general, individual, and no adjustments to AC.

Results:

The LC increased with SF (and speed) from –1% ± 4% to 11% ± 1% (P < .05). At the lower FCS speeds, ηF calculated using general adjustments was lower than ηF calculated using individual adjustments (P < .05), but differences disappear at the fastest speeds. Finally, ηF calculated using individual adjustments to LC in the FCS condition did not differ with ηF assessed in the SAO condition at all the investigated speeds.

Conclusions:

The relative contributions of the arm stroke and leg kick should be individually estimated to reduce errors when calculating arm-stroke efficiency at different speeds and in different swimmers.

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Wetsuit Use During Open Water Swimming. Does It “Suit” Everybody? A Narrative Review

Claudio Quagliarotti, Matteo Cortesi, Giorgio Gatta, Marco Bonifazi, Paola Zamparo, Roberto Baldassarre, Veronica Vleck, and Maria Francesca Piacentini

Purpose : Although wearing a wetsuit while swimming, when permitted, is primarily for safety reasons (ie, to protect against hypothermia), changes in buoyancy, biomechanics, and exercise performance have been reported. This narrative review covers the benefits of different wetsuit models on performance in swimming and triathlon. Methods : A computer search of online databases was conducted to locate relevant published research until March 2021. After the screening process, 17 studies were selected for analysis. Results : Most of the selected studies involved pool swimmers or triathletes completing short or middle distances in a pool while using a full or a long sleeveless wetsuit. Swimming with wetsuit elicited significant improvements in performance (maximum 11%), mainly by decreasing drag and energy cost, by increasing buoyancy, and by affecting technique. Different rates of change in each factor were found according to swimming ability and wetsuit model. In addition, wearing a wetsuit was often rated as uncomfortable by athletes. Conclusions : Although improvement in swimming performance by wearing a wetsuit has been reported in the literature, the amplitude of the improvement remains questionable. The enhancement in swimming performance is attributable merely to improvements in propulsion proficiency and buoyancy, as well as a reduction in drag. The extent to which athletes are familiar with the use of a wetsuit, their swimming ability, and the wetsuit model may play important roles in this improvement. More studies simulating competition and comparing elite versus nonelite athletes are needed.

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The Effects of a Wetsuit on Biomechanical, Physiological, and Perceptual Variables in Experienced Triathletes

Claudio Quagliarotti, Matteo Cortesi, Vittorio Coloretti, Silvia Fantozzi, Giorgio Gatta, Marco Bonifazi, Paola Zamparo, and Maria Francesca Piacentini

Purpose: Wetsuits have been shown to change swim biomechanics and, thus, increase performance, but not all athletes are comfortable with their use because of possible modifications in motor coordination. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of wetsuit use on biomechanical, physiological, and perceptual variables. Methods: Eleven national- and international-level triathletes, familiar with wetsuit use, performed 7 × 200-m front crawl at constant preset speed twice, with and without a full wetsuit. The trunk incline (TI) and index of coordination (IdC) were measured stroke by stroke using video analysis. Stroke, breaths, and kick count, and timing (as breathing/kick action per arm-stroke cycle); stroke length (SL); and underwater length were analyzed using inertial-measurement-unit sensors. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and swimming comfort were monitored during the task. Results: A lower TI; IdC; number of strokes, kicks, and breaths; HR; and RPE for each 200 m were found in wetsuit compared with swimsuit condition. Higher values of SL and underwater length were found in wetsuit, whereas no differences were found in swimming comfort and timing of kicks and breaths. An increase for swimsuit condition in number of strokes and breaths, HR, and RPE was found during the task compared with the first 200 m. Conclusion: Wetsuit use reduces TI and, thus, drag; increases propelling proficiency; and shows lower fatigability, without modifying motor coordination, compared with swimsuit use at the same speed. The use of a wetsuit during training sessions is recommended to increase comfort and the positive effects on performance.