Evidence supports that acute exercise benefits long-term memory. However, it is unclear whether these effects are due to benefits to encoding or consolidation. The purpose of this study was to more effectively isolate encoding and consolidation to advance our understanding of the specific nature of the effects of exercise on long-term memory. Using a within-subject design, participants completed a control session (no exercise), an encoding and consolidation condition (exercise prior to exposure to the memory task, E + C), and a consolidation condition (exercise following exposure). The exercise was 30 min of moderate-intensity cycling. Memory was assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test with recall assessed at 60 min and recall and recognition assessed at 24 hr. Results showed that the E + C condition had significantly better recall at 60 min and 24 hr than the no-exercise condition. This provides additional evidence that acute exercise benefits encoding more than consolidation.
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The Effect of Acute Exercise on Encoding and Consolidation of Long-Term Memory
Jeffrey D. Labban and Jennifer L. Etnier
Postural Control in Older Adults During and Following a 12-Week Balance Training Intervention With Attentional Focus Instructions
Lauren Q. Higgins, Jeffrey D. Labban, Ruth D. Stout, Jeffrey T. Fairbrother, Christopher K. Rhea, and Louisa D. Raisbeck
Adults (N = 54, 80.78 ± 6.08 years) who reported falling during the previous 12 months participated in a 12-week wobble board training program with internal focus or external focus (EF) instructions. Verbal manipulation checks were performed after training sessions as a self-report of the attentional foci used. The percentage of sessions in which participants reported using an EF (EFSR) was subsequently calculated. Mean velocity and mean power frequency in the anterior–posterior (MVELOAP and MPFAP) and medial–lateral (MVELOML and MPFML) direction were assessed during a 35-s wobble board task at Weeks 0, 6, 12, 13, 16, and 20, with the latter three as retention tests. Piecewise linear growth models estimated treatment effects on individual growth trajectories of MVELOAP and ML and MPFAP and ML during intervention and retention periods. Regardless of condition, MVELOML significantly decreased (π = −.0019, p = .005) and MPFML increased (π = .025, p < .02) during the intervention period. In analyses including interaction terms, participants in the EF group who reported greater EFSR had superior progression of MPFAP during the intervention (π = .0013, p = .025). Verbal manipulation checks suggest a preference for and advantage of EF for facilitating postural control performance and automaticity.
Effects of an Acute Bout of Exercise on Memory in 6th Grade Children
Jennifer Etnier, Jeffrey D. Labban, Aaron Piepmeier, Matthew E. Davis, and David A. Henning
Research supports the positive effects of exercise on cognitive performance by children. However, a limited number of studies have explored the effects specifically on memory. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an acute bout of exercise on learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory in a sample of children. Children were randomly assigned to an exercise condition or to a no-treatment control condition and then performed repeated trials on an auditory verbal learning task. In the exercise condition, participants performed the PACER task, an aerobic fitness assessment, in their physical education class before performing the memory task. In the control condition, participants performed the memory task at the beginning of their physical education class. Results showed that participants in the exercise condition demonstrated significantly better learning of the word lists and significantly better recall of the words after a brief delay. There were not significant differences in recognition of the words after an approximately 24-hr delay. These results provide evidence in a school setting that an acute bout of exercise provides benefits for verbal learning and long-term memory. Future research should be designed to identify the extent to which these findings translate to academic measures.
The Effects of Acute Exercise on Memory and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)
Jennifer L. Etnier, Laurie Wideman, Jeffrey D. Labban, Aaron T. Piepmeier, Daniel M. Pendleton, Kelly K. Dvorak, and Katie Becofsky
Acute exercise benefits cognition, and some evidence suggests that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a role in this effect. The purpose of this study was to explore the dose–response relationship between exercise intensity, memory, and BDNF. Young adults completed 3 exercise sessions at different intensities relative to ventilator threshold (Vt) (VO2max, Vt – 20%, Vt + 20%). For each session, participants exercised for approximately 30 min. Following exercise, they performed the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) to assess short-term memory, learning, and long-term memory recall. Twenty-four hours later, they completed the RAVLT recognition trial, which provided another measure of long-term memory. Blood was drawn before exercise, immediately postexercise, and after the 30-min recall test. Results indicated that long-term memory as assessed after the 24-hr delay differed as a function of exercise intensity with the largest benefits observed following maximal intensity exercise. BDNF data showed a significant increase in response to exercise; however, there were no differences relative to exercise intensity and there were no significant associations between BDNF and memory. Future research is warranted so that we can better understand how to use exercise to benefit cognitive performance.
Does Attraction Toward Physical Activity Predict Physical Activity Behavior in Older Adults?
Brynn L. Hudgins, Yeongjun Seo, Kelsey M. Bittel, Kemiah Williams, Derek J. Hevel, Jeffrey D. Labban, and Jackie P. Maher
Background/Objectives: Few studies have investigated associations between the motivational outcome based on physical activity (PA) affective experiences (i.e., attraction vs. antipathy toward PA) and behavior. This study investigated cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between attraction (vs. antipathy) toward PA and device-based PA in older adults. Methods: Older adults (n = 139; 71% female, M age = 70.5) completed assessments of attraction (vs. antipathy) toward PA and 14 days of device-based accelerometry at Times 1 and 2. Results: Greater attraction toward PA at Time 1 was associated with greater steps (β = 5.31, p < .01) and moderate to vigorous intensity PA (β = 3.08, p < .05) at Time 1. Greater attraction toward PA at Time 1 was not significantly associated with steps or moderate to vigorous intensity PA at Time 2. Conclusion: Greater emphasis on resultant motivation from PA affective experiences may be useful in promoting PA in older adults. Significance/Implications: In spite of mixed findings in the present study, there is strong evidence that positive affective responses during a single bout of PA play an important role in predicting future engagement. Yet, affective experiences during PA can be individualistic and often influenced by contextual factors. Interventions designed to increase PA should focus on factors that may create positive affective experiences for participants.
Moving Beyond Mean Levels: Associations Between Subject-Level Variability in Psychological Determinants and Physical Activity in Older Adults
Jaclyn P. Maher, Jeffrey D. Labban, Brynn L. Hudgins, Derek J. Hevel, Kelsey M. Bittel, Laurie Kennedy-Malone, and Donald Hedeker
Background: Research investigating the psychological determinants of physical activity (PA) tends to conceptualize determinants as stable, trait-like factors. Growing evidence suggests that people and the processes that regulate people’s behavior fluctuate over short timescales (eg, hours and days). This study explores the extent to which subject-level variability (vs stability) in determinants of PA, as well as the interaction between subject-level mean and variability in those determinants, is associated with moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) in older adults. Methods: Older adults (N = 202) enrolled in a measurement burst design study with 3 data collection waves occurring over a 1-year period. Each data collection wave consisted of accelerometers and ecological momentary assessment to capture MVPA and psychological determinants of MVPA, respectively. Mixed-effects location scale modeling was first used to estimate subject-level means and variability in psychological determinants. These estimates were then used as predictors of daily MVPA using multilevel modeling. Results: Subject-level variability in PA intentions (β = 0.199, SE = 0.062, P = .001), self-efficacy (β = 0.133, SE = 0.064, P = .037), and planning (β = 0.154, SE = 0.062, P = .014) were positively associated with daily MVPA. Associations between subject-level variability in PA intentions and self-efficacy decreased in strength, becoming nonsignificant at higher mean levels of PA intentions (β = −0.147, SE = 0.062, P = .018) and self-efficacy (β = −0.116, SE = 0.063, P = .062). Conclusions: Greater subject-level variability in psychological determinants may be adaptive for PA engagement, especially among older adults experiencing low levels of those determinants. Moving beyond mean levels to include subject-level variability in psychological determinants of PA may help to improve our understanding of the processes that drive PA engagement.
Innovative Research Exploring the Effects of Physical Activity and Genetics on Cognitive Performance in Community-Based Older Adults
Jennifer L. Etnier, Jeffrey D. Labban, William B. Karper, Laurie Wideman, Aaron T. Piepmeier, Chia-Hao Shih, Michael Castellano, Lauren M. Williams, Se-Yun Park, Vincent C. Henrich, William N. Dudley, and Kelli L. Rulison
Physical activity is predictive of better cognitive performance and lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) is a susceptibility gene for AD with the e4 allele being associated with a greater risk of AD. Cross-sectional and prospective research shows that physical activity is predictive of better cognitive performance for those at greater genetic risk for AD. However, the moderating role of APOE on the effects of a physical activity intervention on cognitive performance has not been examined. The purpose of this manuscript is to justify the need for such research and to describe the design, methods, and recruitment tactics used in the conductance of a study designed to provide insight as to the extent to which cognitive benefits resulting from an 8-month physical activity program are differentiated by APOE e4 status. The effectiveness of the recruitment strategies and the feasibility of recruiting APOE e4 carriers are discussed.