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There have been few attempts to synthesize the knowledge gleaned from the study of cyclic human locomotion and, specifically, to determine whether there are general laws that describe or govern all such forms of locomotion. The purpose of this paper was to test the hypothesis that, when a human participant performs multiple trials of a given form of cyclic locomotion at a wide range of speeds (S) and without constraint on cycle rate (CR) or cycle length (CL), the relationships of CR vs. S and CL vs. S have the same basic characteristics as do those for any other form of cyclic locomotion. Data were gathered from published and unpublished sources. For each participant and form of locomotion, CR-vs.-S and CL-vs.-S relationships were plotted on a common scattergram with S on the abscissa and both CR and CL on the ordinate. Analysis of data collected on 49 participants and 12 forms of locomotion showed that, for every combination of participant and form of locomotion considered (excluding combinations involving simulated locomotion), the relationships of CR vs. S and CL vs. S had the same basic characteristics. These relationships were quadratic in form with CR-vs.-S concave upward and CL-vs.-S concave downward. The factor that made the greater contribution to increases in S was a function of S, with CL the primary factor at low S and CR the primary factor at high S. In short, the results obtained provided unequivocal support for the hypothesis of the study. The basic CR-vs.-S and CL-vs.-S relationships observed for forms of actual locomotion were also observed for some, but not all, of the forms of simulated locomotion examined.

Sloped walking surfaces provide a unique environment for examining the bio-mechanics and neural control of locomotion. While sloped surfaces have been used in a variety of studies in recent years, the current literature provides little if any discussion of the integrity, i.e., validity, of the systems used to collect data. The goal of this study was to develop and characterize a testing system capable of evaluating the kinetics of human locomotion on sloped surfaces. A ramped walkway system with an embedded force plate was constructed and stabilized. Center of pressure and reaction force data from the force plate were evaluated at 6 ramp grades (0, 5, 15, 25, 35, and 39%). Ground reaction force data at 0% grade were effectively the same as data from the same force plate when mounted in the ground and were well within the range of intrasubject variability. Collectively, data from all tests demonstrate the fidelity of this ramp system and suggest it can be used to evaluate human locomotion over a range of slope intensities.

Studying spontaneous synchronization of stepping as two individuals walk on side-by-side treadmills may be useful for understanding the control of bipedal locomotion and may have implications for gait rehabilitation. Existing data suggest that this behavior is related to differences in leg length, walkway slope, and overground speed between partners, and might be promoted by altering these variables. This idea was evaluated here as 24 pairs of subjects stepped on side-by-side treadmills under several conditions of relative speed and slope. Overall, pairings that demonstrated very little spontaneous synchronization with the same treadmill speed and slope exhibited significant increases in this behavior when one treadmill was manipulated. Conversely, pairings that demonstrated a tendency to synchronize under normal conditions exhibited significant decreases in this behavior when either treadmill was altered.

Locomotion over ballast surfaces provides a unique situation for investigating the biomechanics of gait. Although much research has focused on level and sloped walking on a smooth, firm surface in order to understand the common kinematic and kinetic variables associated with human locomotion, the literature currently provides few if any discussions regarding the dynamics of locomotion on surfaces that are either rocky or uneven. The purpose of this study was to investigate a method for using force plates to measure the ground reaction forces (GRFs) during gait on ballast. Ballast is a construction aggregate of unsymmetrical rock used in industry for the purpose of forming track bed on which railway ties are laid or in yards where railroad cars are stored. It is used to facilitate the drainage of water and to create even running surfaces. To construct the experimental ballast surfaces, 31.75-mm (1¼-in.) marble ballast at depths of approximately 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) or 101.6 mm (4 in.) were spread over a carpeted vinyl tile walkway specially designed for gait studies. GRF magnitudes and time histories from a force plate were collected under normal smooth surface and under both ballast surface conditions for five subjects. GRF magnitudes and time histories during smooth surface walking were similar to GRF magnitudes and time histories from the two ballast surface conditions. The data presented here demonstrate the feasibility of using a force plate system to expand the scope of biomechanical analyses of locomotion on ballast surfaces.

Nonlinear dynamics and dynamical systems approaches and methodologies are increasingly being implemented in biomechanics and human movement research. Based on the early insights of Nicolai Bernstein (1967), a significantly different outlook on the movement control “problem” over the last few decades has emerged. From a focus on relatively simple movements has arisen a research focus with the primary goal to study movement in context, allowing the complexity of patterns to emerge. The approach taken is that the control of multiple degrees-of-freedom systems is not necessarily more difficult or complex than that of systems only comprising a few degrees of freedom. Complex patterns and dynamics might not require complex control structures. In this paper we present a tutorial overview of the mathematical underpinnings of nonlinear dynamics and some of its basic analysis tools. This should provide the reader with a basic level of understanding about the mathematical principles and concepts underlying pattern stability and change. This will be followed by an overview of dynamical systems approaches in the study of human movement. Finally, we discuss recent progress in the application of nonlinear dynamical techniques to the study of human locomotion, with particular focus on relative phase techniques for the assessment of coordination.

Different forms of locomotion have been studied in the cat in an effort to understand the neural mechanisms involved in movement control. Recent studies have focused on the roles of one- and two-joint muscles, the integration of central commands with sensory input, and the notion that the control system may be organized around the mechanical actions of muscles and the number of joints they span. To investigate the load-sharing between the two-joint medial gastrocnemius and one-joint soleus muscles, a single cat was trained to walk in an instrumented Plexiglas enclosed walkway at slopes ranging ±75%. Surgically implanted tendon force transducers monitored force output from each muscle. Equations in Newtonian mechanics were used to calculate joint kinetics. Results suggest that as slope angle decreased, the one-joint soleus became the primary contributor to the plantar-flexor moment calculated during stance. Unexpectedly, as slope angle increased, force in the one-joint soleus decreased while force in the two-joint medial gastrocnemius increased in the presence of the increased plantar-flexor moment calculated during stance. One explanation is that activation and force in the two-joint medial gastrocnemius should increase in the presence of a knee flexor and plantar-flexor moment. This was the case during upslope walking, as two-joint muscles increase their activation when they act as an agonist at both joints they cross. Additionally, a force-dependent inhibition of the soleus by the medial gastrocnemius has been described as part of a neural control system organized around the mechanical actions of muscles and the number of joints they span. Hence, a decrease in one-joint soleus force might be expected under certain conditions in upslope walking.