Children with psychiatric disorders often demonstrate gross motor problems. This study investigates if the reverse also holds true by assessing psychiatric symptoms present in children with gross motor problems. Emotional, behavioral, and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), as well as psychosocial problems, were assessed in a sample of 40 children with gross motor problems from an elementary school population (aged 7 through 12 years). Sixty-five percent of the sample met the criteria for psychiatric classification. Anxiety disorders were found most often (45%), followed by ASD (25%) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (15%). Internalizing (51%) and social problems (41%) were prominent, as was “stereotyped behavior” (92%) and “resistance to changes” (92%). Self-perceived incompetence was restricted to domains that were indeed impaired (i.e., the athletic and social domains). The results suggest that children with gross motor problems are strongly at risk for psychiatric problems including anxiety, internalization, and ASD.
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Psychiatric Symptoms in Children With Gross Motor Problems
Claudia Emck, Ruud J. Bosscher, Piet C.W. van Wieringen, Theo Doreleijers, and Peter J. Beek
Interrater Reliability of the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition Following Raters’ Agreement on Measurement Criteria
Aida Carballo-Fazanes, Ezequiel Rey, Nadia C. Valentini, Cristina Varela-Casal, and Cristian Abelairas-Gómez
appropriateness of the tool in a population of interest, reliability refers to the degree a test produces consistent results ( Barnett et al., 2020 ). Among process-oriented assessment tools, the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition (TGMD-3; Ulrich, 2019 ) and its predecessors TGMD and TGMD-2 are based
Body Mass Index, Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, Sleep, and Gross Motor Skill Proficiency in Preschool Children From a Low- to Middle-Income Urban Setting
Simone A. Tomaz, Alessandra Prioreschi, Estelle D. Watson, Joanne A. McVeigh, Dale E. Rae, Rachel A. Jones, and Catherine E. Draper
odds of being overweight and obese at 16–18 years, respectively. 3 Physical activity (PA), sleep, gross motor skills (GMS), and sedentary behavior (SB) are some of the important factors associated with obesity in preschool children. International 24-hour movement guidelines recommend that preschool
Gross Motor Development in Preschool Children with Learning Disabilities
James H. Rimmer and Luke E. Kelly
The purpose of this pilot study was to descriptively evaluate the effects of three different programs on the development of gross motor skills of preschool children with learning disabilities (n = 29). No attempt was made to equate the groups or control for differences between the programs or instructional staff. Two of the programs were used by the respective schools to develop the gross motor skills of their audience. The programs were called occupational therapy (OT) (45–60 min/day, 5 days/week) and adapted physical education (APE) (30 min/day, 4 days/week). A third group was evaluated to determine whether maturational effects had any involvement in gross motor development. This group was called the noninstructional program (NIP) (30 min/day, 2 days/week) and was solely involved in free play. The programs were all in session for the entire school year (33–35 weeks). The results of the study revealed that the children in the APE program made more significant gains across objectives, and particularly on the qualitative measures, than did the children in the OT or NIP groups.
Clinical Validity of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 in Children With Disabilities from the U.S. National Normative Sample
E. Andrew Pitchford and E. Kipling Webster
The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) is a popular assessment of competency in fundamental motor skills (FMS) for children age 3–10 years ( Ulrich, 1985 , 2000 , 2019 ). FMS include locomotor and ball skills that are performed in an upright, bipedal position and are considered to be the
Impact of an Online Rater Training on Scoring Accuracy of Two Skills on the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 Among Children With Developmental Disabilities: A Pilot Study
Hyokju Maeng, Deborah R. Shapiro, Elizabeth Kipling Webster, and Hyunjin Kwon
skills ( Berkeley et al., 2001 ; Staples & Reid, 2010 ). These types of behavioral and movement challenges among children with DD may make it difficult to accurately evaluate their motor skill performance. Assessing Fundamental Movement Skills The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD; Ulrich & Sanford
Prediction of the Gross Motor Development Quotient in Young Children Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine/Polydrugs
Carol A. Leitschuh and John M. Dunn
The purpose was to determine predictors of the gross motor development quotient of the Test of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 1985) for young children prenatally exposed to cocaine/polydrugs. Data were collected on 11 variables hypothesized to influence young children’s development. Participants were 28 children (15 males, 13 females), ages 3 to 6 years, exposed prenatally to cocaine/polydrugs and their nonbiological mothers (i.e., primary care providers). Multiple regression procedures indicated support for the hypothesis that the gross motor development quotient is predicted by the interaction of the child’s effortful control, the primary care provider’s understanding and confidence, and the amount of early intervention service the child received. Correlational analysis supported the hypothesis that with this group of children, early motor skill did not predict delay in the gross motor development quotient at ages 3 to 6 years.
Gross Motor Assessment of Preschool Children with Special Needs: Instrument Selection Considerations
Lauriece L. Zittel
Accurate gross motor assessment of preschool children with special needs is necessary for quality intervention. This paper will identify critical factors for the selection of a preschool gross motor assessment instrument. Nine commercially available tools that purport to measure gross motor skill are critiqued, in table form, according to identified criteria. The criteria include purpose of the assessment, technical adequacy of the tool, nondiscriminatory factors, administrative ease, instructional link, and ecological validity of the instrument. Key features within each of the criteria will be used to review and analyze each instrument. This review illustrates that assessment tools vary in their ability to meet the assessment needs of preschool children suspected of having motor delays, and such tools therefore must be carefully selected.
Subtypes of Students with Learning Disabilities Based upon Gross Motor Functions
Motohide Miyahara
The purpose of this study was to identify possible subtypes of students with learning disabilities based upon gross motor functions. Subjects in a private school for learning difficulties were divided into a group of students with learning disabilities and a comparison group. Gross motor subtests from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978) were administered to both learning-disabled and comparison groups. The four subtypes yielded by the K-means iterative partitioning method demonstrated distinct profiles. Cluster membership was shown to be fairly stable by internal validation techniques. The external validity of the four subtypes was verified by a teacher’s ratings of students’ physical behaviors. It was recommended that the outcome of type-specific remediation and the longitudinal stability of gross motor subtypes be evaluated.
A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States
Anne R. Lindsay, Courtney Coughenour, Layne Case, Jacob Bevell, Victoria Fryer, and Ali Brian
the physical development domain, or section, of early learning standards and outline expectations for preschoolers in their state. For example, although specific state standards vary, standards may outline engagement in certain activity types (e.g., demonstrate a variety of locomotor and gross motor
