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Blunting of Exercise-Induced Salivary Testosterone in Elite-Level Triathletes With a 10-Day Training Camp

John Hough, Caroline Robertson, and Michael Gleeson

Purpose:

This study examined the influence of 10 days of intensified training on salivary cortisol and testosterone responses to 30-min, high-intensity cycling (55/80) in a group of male elite triathletes.

Methods:

Seven elite male triathletes (age 19 ± 1 y, V̇O2max 67.6 ± 4.5 mL · kg–1 · min–1) completed the study. Swim distances increased by 45%. Running and cycling training hours increased by 25% and 229%, respectively. REST-Q questionnaires assessed mood status before, during, and after the training period. Unstimulated saliva samples were collected before, after, and 30 min after a continuous, high-intensity exercise test. Salivary cortisol and testosterone concentrations were assessed.

Results:

Compared with pretraining, blunted exercise-induced salivary testosterone responses to the posttraining 55/80 were found (P = .004). The absolute response of salivary testosterone concentrations to the 55/80 decreased pretraining to posttraining from 114% to 85%. No changes were found in exercise-induced salivary cortisol concentration responses to the 55/80. REST-Q scores indicated no changes in the participants’ psychological stress–recovery levels over the training camp.

Conclusions:

The blunted exercise-induced salivary testosterone is likely due to decreased testicular testosterone production and/or secretion, possibly attributable to hypothalamic dysfunction or reduced testicular blood flow. REST-Q scores suggest that the triathletes coped well with training-load elevations, which could account for the finding of no change in the exercise-induced salivary cortisol concentration. Overall, these findings suggest that the 55/80 can detect altered exercise-induced salivary testosterone concentrations in an elite athletic population due to increased training stress. However, this alteration occurs independently of a perceived elevation of training stress.

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Cardiac Parasympathetic Activity and Race Performance: An Elite Triathlete Case Study

Jamie Stanley, Shaun D’Auria, and Martin Buchheit

The authors examined whether changes in heart-rate (HR) variability (HRV) could consistently track adaptation to training and race performance during a 32-wk competitive season. An elite male long-course triathlete recorded resting HR (RHR) each morning, and vagal-related indices of HRV (natural logarithm of the square root of mean squared differences of successive R−R intervals [ln rMSSD] and the ratio of ln rMSSD to R−R interval length [ln rMSSD:RR]) were assessed. Daily training load was quantified using a power meter and wrist-top GPS device. Trends in HRV indices and training load were examined by calculating standardized differences (ES). The following trends in week-to-week changes were consistently observed: (1) When the triathlete was coping with a training block, RHR decreased (ES −0.38 [90% confidence limits −0.05;−0.72]) and ln rMSSD increased (+0.36 [0.71;0.00]). (2) When the triathlete was not coping, RHR increased (+0.65 [1.29;0.00]) and ln rMSSD decreased (−0.60 [0.00;−1.20]). (3) Optimal competition performance was associated with moderate decreases in ln rMSSD (−0.86 [−0.76;−0.95]) and ln rMSSD:RR (−0.90 [−0.60;−1.20]) in the week before competition. (4) Suboptimal competition performance was associated with small decreases in ln rMSSD (−0.25 [−0.76;−0.95]) and trivial changes in ln rMSSD:RR (−0.04 [0.50;−0.57]) in the week before competition. To conclude, in this triathlete, a decrease in RHR concurrent with increased ln rMSSD compared with the previous week consistently appears indicative of positive training adaptation during a training block. A simultaneous reduction in ln rMSSD and ln rMSSD:RR during the final week preceding competition appears consistently indicative of optimal performance.

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Training-Intensity Distribution During an Ironman Season: Relationship With Competition Performance

Iker Muñoz, Roberto Cejuela, Stephen Seiler, Eneko Larumbe, and Jonathan Esteve-Lanao

Purpose:

To describe training loads during an Ironman training program based on intensity zones and observe training–performance relationships.

Methods:

Nine triathletes completed a program with the same periodization model aiming at participation in the same Ironman event. Before and during the study, subjects performed ramp-protocol tests, running, and cycling to determine aerobic (AeT) and anaerobic thresholds (AnT) through gas-exchange analysis. For swimming, subjects performed a graded lactate test to determine AeT and AnT. Training was subsequently controlled by heart rate (HR) during each training session over 18 wk. Training and the competition were both quantified based on the cumulative time spent in 3 intensity zones: zone 1 (low intensity; <AeT), zone 2 (moderate intensity; between AeT and AnT), and zone 3 (high intensity; >AnT).

Results:

Most of training time was spent in zone 1 (68% ± 14%), whereas the Ironman competition was primarily performed in zone 2 (59% ± 22%). Significant inverse correlations were found between both total training time and training time in zone 1 vs performance time in competition (r = –.69 and –.92, respectively). In contrast, there was a moderate positive correlation between total training time in zone 2 and performance time in competition (r = .53) and a strong positive correlation between percentage of total training time in zone 2 and performance time in competition (r = .94).

Conclusions:

While athletes perform with HR mainly in zone 2, better performances are associated with more training time spent in zone 1. A high amount of cycling training in zone 2 may contribute to poorer overall performance.

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The Challenge of Performing Aerobic Exercise in Tropical Environments: Applied Knowledge and Perspectives

Olivier Hue

The tropical climate is unique in that the seasons are dominated by the movement of the tropical rain belt, resulting in dry and wet seasons rather than the four-season pattern of changes in temperature and day length seen in other parts of the world. More than 33% of the world population lives in the humid tropics, which are characterized by consistently high monthly temperatures and rainfall that exceeds evapotranspiration for most days of the year. Both the 2014 Football World Cup (in Brazil) and the 2016 Olympic Games (in Rio de Janeiro) will take place in this climate. This review focuses on the effects of the tropical environment on human exercise performance, with a special emphasis on prolonged aerobic exercise, such as swimming, cycling, and running. Some of the data were collected in Guadeloupe, the French West Indies Island where all the French teams will be training for the 2016 Olympic Games. We will first fully define the tropical climate and its effects on performance in these sports. Then we will discuss the types of adaptation that help to enhance performance in this climate, as well as the issues concerning the prescription of adequate training loads. We will conclude with some perspectives for future research.

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A Carbohydrate Ingestion Intervention in an Elite Athlete Who Follows a Low-Carbohydrate High-Fat Diet

Christopher C. Webster, Jeroen Swart, Timothy D. Noakes, and James A. Smith

during training and racing, for more than 2 years. While on this diet, he won numerous South African triathlon and Ironman competitions and consistently placed in the top 20 in elite international competitions, often winning his age group category. The ability to excel in competition is noteworthy and

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Variation of Age-Related Changes in Endurance Performance Between Modes of Locomotion in Men: An Analysis of Master World Records

Romuald Lepers, Paul J. Stapley, and Thomas Cattagni

declines in aerobic and anaerobic power occur together with aging, 4 while other works reported a greater impact of aging on anaerobic versus aerobic power. 8 Previous studies examining the age-related decline in triathlon performances (ie, swimming, cycling, and running) attempted to ascertain if the

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Sex Differences in World-Record Performance: The Influence of Sport Discipline and Competition Duration

Øyvind Sandbakk, Guro Strøm Solli, and Hans-Christer Holmberg

] ), and cross-country skiing (10–12%). In freestyle swimming the difference decreases from 10.8% in the 200-m to 6.3% in the 1500-m (Figure  1[C] ), whereas in triathlon, the sex difference is around 11% to 12%, although swimming performance differentiates least. 7 The performance differences between men

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Effect of Cold-Water Immersion on Handgrip Performance in Rock Climbers

Jan Kodejška, Jiří Baláš, and Nick Draper

, in a triathlon-style format (lead, bouldering, and speed), and this will place an increased emphasis on performance and recovery. Consequently, research regarding the potential benefits of CWI as a recovery strategy gains further relevance. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of 15°C

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Improvement of Flutter-Kick Performance in Novice Surface Combat Swimmers With Increased Hip Strength

Anne Z. Beethe, Elizabeth F. Nagle, Mita Lovalekar, Takashi Nagai, Bradley C. Nindl, and Christopher Connaboy

A study commissioned in 2009 by the US Navy regarding SEALs selection processes reported that athletes involved in water polo, competitive swimming, triathlon, lacrosse, boxing, rugby, and wrestling are more likely to succeed during Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL training and subsequently

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Precooling With Crushed Ice: As Effective as Heat Acclimation at Improving Cycling Time-Trial Performance in the Heat

Matthew Zimmermann, Grant Landers, Karen Wallman, and Georgina Kent

, previous research using ice-slushy ingestion during the cycle stage of a triathlon in hot conditions noted increased oxygen consumption toward the end of the run stage, resulting in improved run performance. 32 Stevens et al 32 speculated that this increase in exercise intensity may have been the result