) and 160% (1 wk) of normal training load Le Meur et al 20 Randomized controlled trial (1b) 8 (M) [C] 13 (M) [FO] Trained to well-trained Triathlon 3 wk—140% of normal weekly training load Dupuy et al 22 Cross-sectional (2b) 11 (M) [FO] Trained Cycling, triathlon, and running 2 wk—200% of normal weekly
Search Results
A Systematic Review on Markers of Functional Overreaching in Endurance Athletes
Annemiek J. Roete, Marije T. Elferink-Gemser, Ruby T.A. Otter, Inge K. Stoter, and Robert P. Lamberts
Improvement of Sprint Triathlon Performance in Trained Athletes With Positive Swim Pacing
Sam S.X. Wu, Jeremiah J. Peiffer, Peter Peeling, Jeanick Brisswalter, Wing Y. Lau, Kazunori Nosaka, and Chris R. Abbiss
Purpose:
To investigate the effect of 3 swim-pacing profiles on subsequent performance during a sprint-distance triathlon (SDT).
Methods:
Nine competitive/trained male triathletes completed 5 experimental sessions including a graded running exhaustion test, a 750-m swim time trial (STT), and 3 SDTs. The swim times of the 3 SDTs were matched, but pacing was manipulated to induce positive (ie, speed gradually decreasing from 92% to 73% STT), negative (ie, speed gradually increasing from 73% to 92% STT), or even pacing (constant 82.5% STT). The remaining disciplines were completed at a self-selected maximal pace. Speed over the entire triathlon, power output during the cycle discipline, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) for each discipline, and heart rate during the cycle and run were determined.
Results:
Faster cycle and overall triathlon times were achieved with positive swim pacing (30.5 ± 1.8 and 65.9 ± 4.0 min, respectively), as compared with the even (31.4 ± 1.0 min, P = .018 and 67.7 ± 3.9 min, P = .034, effect size [ES] = 0.46, respectively) and negative (31.8 ± 1.6 min, P = .011 and 67.3 ± 3.7 min, P = .041, ES = 0.36, respectively) pacing. Positive swim pacing elicited a lower RPE (9 ± 2) than negative swim pacing (11 ± 2, P = .014). No differences were observed in the other measured variables.
Conclusions:
A positive swim pacing may improve overall SDT performance and should be considered by both elite and age-group athletes during racing.
Cycling Attributes That Enhance Running Performance After the Cycle Section in Triathlon
Naroa Etxebarria, Judith M. Anson, David B. Pyne, and Richard A. Ferguson
Purpose:
To determine how cycling with a variable (triathlon-specific) power distribution affects subsequent running performance and quantify relationships between an individual cycling power profile and running ability after cycling.
Methods:
Twelve well-trained male triathletes (VO2peak 4.9 ± 0.5 L/min; mass 73.5 ± 7.7 kg; mean ± SD) undertook a cycle VO2peak and maximal aerobic power (MAP) test and a power profile involving 6 maximal efforts (6 s to 10 min). Each subject then performed 2 experimental 1-h cycle trials, both at a mean power of 65% MAP, at either variable power (VAR) ranging from 40% to 140% MAP or constant power (CON) followed by an outdoor 9.3-km time-trial run. Subjects also completed a control 9.3-km run with no preceding exercise.
Results:
The 9.3-km run time was 42 ± 37 s slower (mean ± 90% confidence limits [CL]) after VAR (35:32 ± 3:18 min:s, mean ± SD) compared with CON cycling (34:50 ± 2:49 min:s). This decrement after VAR appeared primarily in the first half of the run (35 ± 20 s; mean ± 90% CL). Higher blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion after 1 h VAR cycling were moderately correlated (r = .51–.55; ± ~.40) with a larger decrement in run performance. There were no clear associations between the power-profile test and decrement in run time after VAR compared with CON.
Conclusions:
A highly variable power distribution in cycling is likely to impair 10-km triathlon run performance. Training to lower physiological and perceptual responses during cycling should limit the negative effects on triathlon running.
Self-Report Versus Direct Measurement for Assessment of Fluid Intake During a 70.3-Mile Triathlon
Patrick B. Wilson, Gregory S. Rhodes, and Stacy J. Ingraham
Purpose:
Self-report (SR) has been the primary method used to assess fluid intake during endurance events, but unfortunately, little is known about the validity of SR. The purpose of this study was to compare SR fluid intake with direct measurement (DM) during a 70.3-mile triathlon.
Methods:
Fifty-three (42 men, 11 women) individuals competing in a 70.3-mile triathlon participated in the study. On the 13.1-mile-run section of the triathlon, 11 research stations provided fluid in bottles filled with 163 mL of water or carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage (CEB). Participants submitted bottles 25 m past aid stations to be reweighed postrace. Participants also answered questions regarding fluid intake postrace. Bland-Altman plots and 95% limits of agreement were used to assess precision of the measures, while least-squares regression assessed linear agreement.
Results:
SR intakes during the run ranged from 0–1793, 0–1837, and 0–2628 mL for water, CEB, and total fluid, with corresponding DM intakes of 0–1599, 0–1642, and 0–2250 mL. DM and SR showed strong linear agreement for water, CEB, and total fluid (R 2 = .71, .80, and .80). Mean differences between the measures on the Bland-Altman plots were small (13–41 mL), but relatively large differences (±500 mL) between the measures were apparent for some participants.
Conclusions:
SR is the predominant methodology used in field studies assessing hydration, despite little to no data confirming its validity. The results herein suggest that fluid-intake-assessment methodology should be chosen on a case-by-case basis and that caution should be used when interpreting data based on SR.
Muscle Glycogenolysis and Resynthesis in Response to a Half Ironman Triathlon: A Case Study
Trevor L. Gillum, Charles L. Dumke, and Brent C. Ruby
Purpose:
To describe the degrees of muscle-glycogen depletion and resynthesis in response to a half Ironman triathlon.
Methods:
One male subject (38 years of age) completed the Grand Columbian half Ironman triathlon (1.9-km swim, 90-km bike, 21.1-km run, Coulee City, Wash). Three muscle biopsies were obtained from his right vastus lateralis (prerace, immediately postrace, and 4 hours postrace). Prerace and postrace body weight were recorded, in addition to macronutrient consumption before, during, and after the race. Energy expenditure and whole-body substrate oxidation were estimated from linear regression established from laboratory trials (watts and run pace relative to VO2 and VCO2).
Results:
Body weight decreased 3.8 kg from prerace to postrace. Estimated CHO energy expenditure was 10,003 kJ for the bike segment and 5759 kJ for the run segment of the race. The athlete consumed 308 g of exogenous CHO (liquid and gel; 1.21 g CHO/min) during the race. Muscle glycogen decreased from 227.1 prerace to 38.6 mmol · kg wet weight−1 · h−1 postrace. During the 4 hours postrace, the athlete consumed a mixed diet (471 g CHO, 15 g fat, 64 g protein), which included liquid CHO sources and a meal. The calculated rate of muscle-glycogen resynthesis was 4.1 mmol · kg wet weight−1 · h−1.
Conclusion:
Completing a half Ironman triathlon depends on a high rate of muscle glycogenolysis, which demonstrates the importance of exogenous carbohydrate intake during the race. In addition, rates of muscle-glycogen resynthesis might be dampened by the eccentric damage resulting from the run portion of the race.
Relationships Between Triathlon Performance and Pacing Strategy During the Run in an International Competition
Yann Le Meur, Thierry Bernard, Sylvain Dorel, Chris R. Abbiss, Gérard Honnorat, Jeanick Brisswalter, and Christophe Hausswirth
Purpose:
The purpose of the present study was to examine relationships between athlete’s pacing strategies and running performance during an international triathlon competition.
Methods:
Running split times for each of the 107 finishers of the 2009 European Triathlon Championships (42 females and 65 males) were determined with the use of a digital synchronized video analysis system. Five cameras were placed at various positions of the running circuit (4 laps of 2.42 km). Running speed and an index of running speed variability (IRSVrace) were subsequently calculated over each section or running split.
Results:
Mean running speed over the frst 1272 m of lap 1 was 0.76 km-h–1 (+4.4%) and 1.00 km-h–1 (+5.6%) faster than the mean running speed over the same section during the three last laps, for females and males, respectively (P < .001). A significant inverse correlation was observed between RSrace and IRSVrace for all triathletes (females r = -0.41, P = .009; males r = -0.65, P = .002; and whole population -0.76, P = .001). Females demonstrated higher IRSVrace compared with men (6.1 ± 0.5 km-h–1 and 4.0 ± 1.4 km-h–1, for females and males, respectively, P = .001) due to greater decrease in running speed over uphill sections.
Conclusions:
Pacing during the run appears to play a key role in high-level triathlon performance. Elite triathletes should reduce their initial running speed during international competitions, even if high levels of motivation and direct opponents lead them to adopt an aggressive strategy.
Sponsorship Sales in Minor Sport: The Case of the 2013 International Triathlon Union World Duathlon Championships
Norm O’Reilly, Alana Gattinger, and Elisa Beselt
This case focuses on the sponsorship sales aspect of the 2013 International Triathlon Union World Duathlon Championships in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The case outlines the process of acquiring the right to host the event and creating/implementing a sponsorship sales strategy for the event. The case provides background on the sport of duathlon and the city of Ottawa’s capacity to host an international sport event of this level. This case recognizes that securing sponsorship is a major challenge that many small sport organizations and sport events face. Strategies are presented to show how these sport organizations can actively promote their offerings to overcome this challenge. Intended for graduate and undergraduate students in sport management, event management, and marketing, information for this case was obtained from interviews with event staff, secondary research, and documentation provided by the event organizing committee. It will be necessary for students to use critical thinking to provide feedback to the organizing committee about how they can target and acquire sponsors for the 2013 International Triathlon Union World Duathlon Championships.
Awareness and Use of Caffeine by Athletes Competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships
Ben Desbrow and Michael Leveritt
This study assessed the knowledge, prevalence, and quantity of caffeine use by athletes competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. Caffeine-related questionnaires were self-administered to 140 (105 male and 35 female, 40.3 ± 10.7 y) athletes representing 16 countries. Fifty of these athletes further consented to immediate post-race blood samples for analysis of plasma caffeine and paraxanthine using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Seventy-two percent of 70 athletes correctly identified caffeine as being an unrestricted substance in triathlon. The majority of athletes [125 (89%)] were planning on using a caffeinated substance immediately prior to or throughout the race. Cola drinks (78%), caffeinated gels (42%), coffee (usually pre-race) (37%), energy drinks (13%), and NoDoz tablets (9%) were the most popular caffeinated choices. Mean ± standard deviation (and range) post race plasma caffeine and paraxanthine levels were 22.3 ± 20 μmol/L (1.7 to 98.4) and 9.4 ± 6 μmol/L (1.8 to 28.9), respectively. Seven athletes (14%) finished with plasma caffeine levels > 40 μmol/L. Plasma values from elite athletes did not differ from age group competitors. Despite the prevalence of its consumption and the training experience of this athletic group, over one quarter of athletes remained either confused or uninformed about caffeine’s legality. Levels of plasma caffeine taken immediately post race indicated that athletes typically finish with quantities of caffeine that have been shown to improve endurance performance (i.e., ~ 20 μmol/L or a dose of > 3 mg/kg body weight).
The Absence of Resistance Training? Exploring the Politics of Health in High Performance Youth Triathlon
Parissa Safai, Jay Johnson, and John Bryans
While research and scholarship on the dynamic interconnections between sport and health has steadily grown in the sociocultural study of sport in the past few decades, this paper focuses more directly on the politics of health within sport. Drawing on a small study of the lived experiences and understandings of health, pain/injury, risk and precaution among 12 male and female high performance youth (16–19 years of age) triathletes and three coaches, we outline the ways in which health becomes depoliticized among high performance athletes as our participants made no connection to health as a political phenomenon—within or outside of sport—or to their own right to health as members of the high performance sport community. We conclude by offering some suggestions as to why health was (and is) rendered apolitical in high performance youth triathlon.
Triathlon Wet Suit and Technical Parameters at the Start and End of a 1500-m Swim
David Perrier and Karine Monteil
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of wearing a triathlon wet suit on the technical parameters of the front crawl stroke. Eight highly trained male triathletes were filmed with underwater camcorders during two 1500-m swim tests: one with a wet suit (WS) and the other with a standard suit (SS). Two conditions were considered: Condition I (CI) and Condition XV (CXV), representing the 1st and the 15th 100-m, respectively. Views were synchronized and digitized using kinematic analysis software (Schleihauf, 1994) to obtain 3-D coordinates of the anatomical landmarks of the body. Results showed that the wet suit and duration of the exercise significantly influenced stroke parameters. The swim with WS was characterized by greater stroke length and a progressive increase in stroke frequency, resulting from a more extended elbow position during the stroke and from a decrease in the absolute and relative times of the propulsive phase. These changes indicated more efficient upper limb action. The duration of exercise modified the swim with WS and SS. The loss of velocity observed in CXV was related to a decrease in stroke length, or more precisely a reduction in lever arm length during the aquatic phase, insufficiently offset by a slight increase in stroke frequency. These two motor responses, a less extended elbow position and a stroke frequency increase, emerged as an easier motor solution for coping with the effect of fatigue. This solution could be regarded as an adaptation to the duration of the exercise.
