The present study examined the effects of a mental skills training package on competitive gymnasium triathlon performance and evaluated the utilization and impacts of the mental skills during performance. Four participants competed against each other on ten occasions in a single-subject multiple baseline across individuals design, which was used to evaluate an intervention package including goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and self-talk. The results indicated the mental skills package to be effective in enhancing all participants’ competitive triathlon performance and usage of mental skills from baseline to intervention phases. Qualitative data revealed that each of the mental skills were employed both prior to and during each triathlon and had varying impacts depending on when they were utilized. Issues regarding mental skill effectiveness and usage within competitive endurance performance are discussed.
Search Results
Developing Competitive Endurance Performance Using Mental Skills Training
Richard C. Thelwell and Iain A. Greenlees
Exposure and Response Prevention in the Treatment of an Okeanophobic Triathlete
Gary M. Farkas
An in vivo exposure and response prevention procedure consisting of seven treatment and generalization sessions was used to aid a 50-year-old woman with a lifelong fear and avoidance of swimming in the ocean. Subsequent to treatment, the subject, already a competent pool swimmer and an accomplished athlete, swam in the ocean, reduced her swim time by over 50%, and placed second in her age group while competing in a major triathlon. A 1-year follow-up indicated that she was still swimming in the ocean and participating in triathlons. The athlete/sport psychologist relationship is discussed in reference to the athlete’s compliance with treatment recommendations.
Training Load and Baseline Characteristics Associated With New Injury/Pain Within an Endurance Sporting Population: A Prospective Study
Richard Johnston, Roisin Cahalan, Laura Bonnett, Matthew Maguire, Alan Nevill, Philip Glasgow, Kieran O’Sullivan, and Thomas Comyns
, cycling, triathlon, swimming, and rowing. ESPs can be exposed to high training loads (TLs) and competition frequency, which may contribute to the high prevalence of injury and/or pain (IP) (47%–75%) reported within this population. 2 A surge in TL and IP research in recent years 3 has identified poor TL
Well-Trained Endurance Athletes’ Knowledge, Insight, and Experience of Caffeine Use
Ben Desbrow and Michael Leveritt
This descriptive cross-sectional study assessed the perceptions, knowledge, and experiences of caffeine use by athletes competing at the 2005 Ironman Triathlon World Championships. Questionnaires were distributed to 140 athletes (105 men and 35 women, 40.3 ± 10.7 y old) representing 16 countries during prerace registration. A large proportion (73%) of these endurance athletes believe that caffeine is ergogenic to their endurance performance, and 84% believe it improves their concentration. The most commonly reported positive caffeine experiences related to in-competition use of cola drinks (65%) and caffeinated gels (24%). The athletes’ ability to accurately quantify the caffeine content of common food items was limited. The most popular sources of caffeine information were self-experimentation (16%), fellow athletes (15%), magazines (13%), and journal articles (12%). Over half the athletes (53%) could not identify an amount of caffeine required to improve their triathlon performance. Mean (± standard deviation) suggested doses were 3.8 (± 3) mg/kg body weight. Few side effects associated with taking caffeine during exercise were reported.
Increased Energy and Nutrient Intake during Training and Competition Improves Elite Triathletes' Endurance Performance
Jerry A. Frentsos and Janine T. Baer
Dietary habits were evaluated in 6 elite triathletes (4 male, 2 female). Analysis of 7-day diet records showed mean daily energy and carbohydrate intake to be insufficient to support estimated requirements. Mean intakes of vitamins and most minerals exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) except zinc and chromium, which did not meet 66% of recommended amounts. Individualized nutrition intervention using the Diabetic Food Exchange System to support performance during training and competition was provided. To improve dietary intake, subjects consumed fortified nutrition supplements (Reliv, Inc.) before and after daily training. Follow-up 7-day diet records showed that average energy intake and percentage of energy from carbohydrate increased, as did intakes of zinc and chromium. Triathletes' performance in a short course triathlon was improved compared to a similar competition completed prior to the nutrition intervention. Following the intervention, triathletes were able to meet recommended daily energy, macronutrient, and micronutrient intakes and improve endurance performance.
Patterns of Change in Psychological Variables Leading up to Competition in Superior Versus Inferior Performers
Ruth Boat and Ian M. Taylor
The study explored patterns of change in a number of potentially performance-related variables (i.e., fatigue, social support, self-efficacy, autonomous motivation, mental skills) during the lead-up to a competitive triathlon, and whether these patterns of change differed for relatively superior versus inferior performers. Forty-two triathletes completed an inventory measuring the study variables every other day during a 2-week period leading up to competition. Performance was assessed using participants’ race time, and using a self-referenced relative score compared with personal best times. Multilevel growth curve analyses revealed significant differences in growth trajectories over the 2-week period in mental skills use, social support, and fatigue. The results provide novel insight into how athletes’ fluctuating psychological state in the 2 weeks before competition may be crucial in determining performance.
Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes: What Sport-Rehabilitation Specialists Need to Know
Christian C. Evans and Sandra L. Cassady
Objective:
To describe the underlying conditions that predispose athletes to sudden cardiac death (SCD) and review signs and symptoms that indicate an athlete is at risk.
Data Sources:
MEDLINE, the Los Angeles Times and Triathlon Times archives, and other sources identified in the references of articles initially located therein. A total of 43 references were included.
Conclusions:
Most cases of SCD in younger athletes (≤35 years) are attributable to multiple hereditary conditions, with familial hyper-trophic cardiomyopathy being the primary cause, whereas the major cause of SCD in older athletes (>35 years) is coronary artery disease. Health-care professionals evaluating athletes should pay particular attention to past medical and family history. Items in an athlete’s screening that suggest increased risk include a history of chest pain, syncope, excessive shortness of breath, irregular heart rate or murmur, or a history of SCD in an immediate family member.
Role of Psychological Skills Training in Increasing Athletic Pain Tolerance
Blair G. Whitmarsh and Richard B. Alderman
Endurance athletes have indicated that the ability to tolerate high levels of athletic pain accounted for much of their success (Egan, 1987). This study examined the role of stress inoculation training (SIT) in increasing athletic pain tolerance on an isometric quadriceps task. Athletes (N = 45) from the sports of rowing, cycling, and triathlon completed the study, which consisted of performing a wall sit for as long as possible in a pretest-posttest control group design. The results indicated that subjects receiving training in SIT significantly increased their tolerance time on the wall sit, F(4, 84) = 2.51, p < .048, as compared to the control. Consistent with other research (Vallis, 1984), there was no difference between subjects who received training in SIT and those who received training in only one component of SIT. The results suggest that SIT may assist athletes in tolerating higher levels of athletic pain during training and competition.
Peak Impact Accelerations during Track and Treadmill Running
Erin M.R. Bigelow, Niell G. Elvin, Alex A. Elvin, and Steven P. Arnoczky
To determine whether peak vertical and horizontal impact accelerations were different while running on a track or on a treadmill, 12 healthy subjects (average age 32.8 ± 9.8 y), were fitted with a novel, wireless accelerometer capable of recording triaxial acceleration over time. The accelerometer was attached to a custom-made acrylic plate and secured at the level of the L5 vertebra via a tight fitting triathlon belt. Each subject ran 4 miles on a synthetic, indoor track at a self-selected pace and accelerations were recorded on three perpendicular axes. Seven days later, the subjects ran 4 miles on a treadmill set at the individual runner’s average pace on the track and the peak vertical and horizontal impact magnitudes between the track and treadmill were compared. There was no difference (P = .52) in the average peak vertical impact accelerations between the track and treadmill over the 4 mile run. However, peak horizontal impact accelerations were greater (P = .0012) on the track when compared with the treadmill. This study demonstrated the feasibility for long-term impact accelerations monitoring using a novel wireless accelerometer.
Exercise-Induced Illness and Inflammation: Can Immunonutrition and Iron Help?
Lindy M. Castell, David C. Nieman, Stéphane Bermon, and Peter Peeling
The main focus of this review is illness among elite athletes, how and why it occurs, and whether any measures can be taken to combat it or to prevent its onset. In particular, there is particular interest in exercise-induced immunodepression, which is a result of the immune system regarding exercise (e.g., prolonged, exhaustive exercise) as a challenge to its function. This promotes the inflammatory response. There is often a high incidence of illness in athletes after undertaking strenuous exercise, particularly among those competing in endurance events, not only mainly in terms of upper respiratory tract illness, but also involving gastrointestinal problems. It may well be that this high incidence is largely due to insufficient recovery time being allowed after, for example, a marathon, a triathlon, or other endurance events. Two examples of the incidence of upper respiratory tract illness in moderate versus endurance exercise are provided. In recent years, increasing numbers of research studies have investigated the origins, symptoms, and incidence of these bouts of illness and have attempted to alleviate the symptoms with supplements, sports foods, or immunonutrition. One aspect of the present review discusses iron deficiency, which has been primarily suggested to have an impact upon cell-mediated immunity. Immunonutrition is also discussed, as are new techniques for investigating links between metabolism and immune function.
