The association between androgens and competition in women has been understudied compared with men. The current study examined the link between testosterone (T) and competition in elite female athletes, using a sample of female wrestlers that included athletes competing at both the national and international level. In a repeated-measures design, saliva samples were collected before and after wrestling bouts, with comparable samples of wins and losses, and subsequently analyzed for T. Study results showed a 22% increase in circulating bioavailable T from pre-to postbout, F(1, 12) = 9.71, P = .009. There was no significant difference in T between win or loss outcomes. These findings—showing a link between individual head-to-head competition and T in women—demonstrate that women’s androgenic responses to environmental contexts are dynamic and may be an important factor to address in research on competitive performance.
Search Results
The Effect of Competition on Salivary Testosterone in Elite Female Athletes
Lisa Dawn Hamilton, Sari M. van Anders, David N. Cox, and Neil V. Watson
Uses and Gratifications of a Retired Female Athlete’s Twitter Followers
Galen Clavio and Ted M. Kian
An Internet-based survey was posted on the Twitter feed of a retired female athlete to ascertain the demographics, uses, and gratifications of her feed’s followers. Analysis of the data revealed that followers were predominantly White, affluent, educated, and older than prior research into online audiences has shown. The perception of the athlete as being an expert at her sport was the most salient reason reported to follow the Twitter feed, followed by affinity for the athlete’s writing style. Analysis of variance uncovered 5 significant differences in item salience between male and female followers, with women more likely to use this Twitter feed because of affinity for the athlete and men more likely to use it because of perception of the athlete as physically attractive. Factor analysis uncovered 3 dimensions of gratification: an organic fandom factor, a functional fandom factor, and an interactivity factor.
Male Athletes, Female Aesthetics: The Continued Ambivalence Toward Female Athletes in ESPN’s The Body Issue
Gregory A. Cranmer, Maria Brann, and Nicholas D. Bowman
Previous studies have suggested that media reify frames that subtly enforce sex differences in a manner that detracts from women athletes’ athleticism. This phenomenon is referred to as ambivalence. To analyze ambivalence, this study introduces a theoretically and empirically supported coding scheme that was used to conduct a quantitative frame analysis of 157 images featured in ESPN’s The Body Issue. These images were coded for frames that de-emphasize athleticism, sexualize athletes, or deny a sporting context. Results suggest that athlete sex is associated with de-emphasized athleticism and sexualized frames, and sport gender is associated with context frames. Results also support longitudinal trends in The Body Issue series, which suggest that the series has become more sexualized and removed from a sports context but has decreased the use of frames that de-emphasize athleticism. In general, The Body Issue continues to reinforce established media trends that trivialize female athletes, despite claiming to do the opposite.
Bone Mineral Density in Weight-Bearing and Nonweight-Bearing Female Athletes
Kathleen M. Rourke, Jean Bowering, Pirkko Turkki, Philip J. Buckenmeyer, F. Deavor Thomas, Betsy A. Keller, and Gary A. Sforzo
Bone mineral density (BMD) development and maintenance is enhanced with weight-bearing exercise, while bed rest and zero gravity results in BMD loss. The purpose of this study is to determine if BMD is significantly different in female athletes engaged in weight-bearing versus nonweight-bearing sports. Six BMD sites and anthropometric measurements were assessed at 3 equal intervals utilizing 2-way ANOVA’s. Controlling for body-weight, differences in BMD were investigated utilizing ANCOVA. Pearson and Spearman Rank Correlations were utilized to investigate interrelationships between anthropometric, VO2max, and BMD measurements. Swimmers were taller and heavier with greater percent, body fat. BMD was significantly different between runners and swimmers only at the distal, which was higher for swimmers at 6 months. There was no difference in radial BMD when utilizing ANCOVA, with weight serving as the covariate. Swimming does not appear to be a contraindicated activity for BMD accrual and maintenance.
Assessment of Growth and Maturation in Female Athletes at a Single Point in Time
Jennifer L. Gay, Eva V. Monsma, Alan L. Smith, J.D. DeFreese, and Toni Torres-McGehee
Growth and maturation may impact adolescent behavior and development of psychological disorders. Currently age at menarche is used as the primary marker of maturation, even though it occurs later than other indicators of growth such as peak height velocity (PHV). Maturity offset predicting age at PHV has not been validated in diverse samples. Anthropometric measures and self-reported age at menarche were obtained for 212 female athletes ages 11 to 16 years (M = 13.25). Shared variance between menarcheal age and estimated age at PHV (APHV) was small (R 2 = 5.3%). Discriminant validity was established by classifying participants as pre- or post-PHV or menarche (X2 = 32.62, P < .0001). The Pearson’s correlation between chronological age and age at PHV (r = .69) was stronger than with age at menarche (r = .26). Making informed decisions about accounting for growth and maturation using estimated age at PHV are offered.
Role Conflict and Burnout among Elite Israeli Female Athletes Engaged in “Feminine” and “Non-Feminine” Sports
Michael Bar-Eli, Arie Shirom, Michal Nir, and Ayala Malach Pines
Ninety female athletes at the international and/or national level, engaged in sports that are either “feminine” (n=49) or “non-feminine” (n=41), participated in this study. We predicted (a) a positive relation between role conflict and burnout; and (b) higher role conflict and burnout among athletes from “non-feminine” sports. Questionnaire results revealed a positive relation between role conflict and burnout, albeit only in “feminine” sports. Role conflict was not higher among athletes from “non-feminine” sports. Burnout was somewhat lower among “non-feminine”-sports athletes. “Feminine”-sports athletes were significantly younger, had more training, and felt more restricted by their athletic activity, in comparison to “non-feminine”-sports athletes. Results are interpreted in terms of current theoretical perspectives, such as the “expansionist” approach.
The Queer Sport of Failure: Representations of Female Athletes in Korean Sport Films
Soo Yeon Kim and Sungjoo Park
This article aims to update the discourse on female Korean athletes by illuminating the radical change of their imagery and reality over the last three decades, from sexless victims of patriarchy to sportswomen asserting their strength, femininity, and even “queerness.” Insofar as sports films provide a felicitous site through which to examine popular and evolving representations of gender and sport, the article analyzes a variety of Korean sports films which reproduce, or pose a challenge to, conventional portrayals of female athletes. Due to the paucity of scholarly work undertaken in Korean in this field, the authors draw upon a wide array of mainly American sources and, in so doing, hope to enlarge the small but growing body of work on gender and sport in Korea written in English.
Understanding the LPGA Tour Top Six Korean Golfers’ Self-Presentation on Social Media: A Content Analysis of Instagram Posts
Wonyul Bae, Kim Hahn, and Minseok Cho
figures’ “performances” in a social media space, this study sought to analyze Korean female athletes’ visual self-portrayals and personal branding efforts on Instagram. According to Rui and Stefanone ( 2013 ), an individual’s cultural identity can influence one’s self-presentation on social media. Rui and
Energy Deficiency, Menstrual Disturbances, and Low Bone Mass: What Do Exercising Australian Women Know About the Female Athlete Triad?
Stephanie M. Miller, Sonja Kukuljan, Anne I. Turner, Paige van der Pligt, and Gaele Ducher
Purpose:
Prevention of the female athlete triad is essential to protect female athletes’ health. The aim of this study was to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of regularly exercising adult women in Australia toward eating patterns, menstrual cycles, and bone health.
Methods:
A total of 191 female exercisers, age 18–40 yr, engaging in ≥2 hr/wk of strenuous activity, completed a survey. After 11 surveys were excluded (due to incomplete answers), the 180 participants were categorized into lean-build sports (n = 82; running/athletics, triathlon, swimming, cycling, dancing, rowing), non-lean-build sports (n = 94; basketball, netball, soccer, hockey, volleyball, tennis, trampoline, squash, Australian football), or gym/fitness activities (n = 4).
Results:
Mean (± SD) training volume was 9.0 ± 5.5 hr/wk, with participants competing from local up to international level. Only 10% of respondents could name the 3 components of the female athlete triad. Regardless of reported history of stress fracture, 45% of the respondents did not think that amenorrhea (absence of menses for ≥3 months) could affect bone health, and 22% of those involved in lean-build sports would do nothing if experiencing amenorrhea (vs. 3.2% in non-lean-build sports, p = .005). Lean-build sports, history of amenorrhea, and history of stress fracture were all significantly associated with not taking action in the presence of amenorrhea (all p < .005).
Conclusions:
Few active Australian women are aware of the detrimental effects of menstrual dysfunction on bone health. Education programs are needed to prevent the female athlete triad and ensure that appropriate actions are taken by athletes when experiencing amenorrhea.
Comparison of Lower Extremity Emg Between the 2-Leg Squat and Modified Single-Leg Squat in Female Athletes
Kevin McCurdy, Erin O’Kelley, Matt Kutz, George Langford, James Ernest, and Marcos Torres
Purpose:
To compare EMG activity of selected hip and knee muscle groups in female athletes performing a modified single-leg squat and the 2-leg squat using the same relative intensity.
Methods:
Eleven Division I female athletes from a variety of sports (soccer, softball, and track) completed the study. EMG measurements were taken as the subjects completed 3 parallel repetitions at 85% of their 3-repetition maximum on each exercise. Mean and mean peak EMG data from the gluteus medius, hamstrings, and quadriceps and the quadriceps:hamstrings EMG ratio were compared between the 2 exercises.
Results:
Statistically higher mean (P < .01) and mean peak (P < .05) gluteus medius and mean and mean peak (P < .01) hamstring EMG activity occurred during the modified single-leg squat. The 2-leg squat produced higher mean and mean peak (P < .05) quadriceps activity and a higher quadriceps:hamstrings EMG ratio (P < .01).
Conclusion:
Muscle-recruitment patterns appear to differ between the 2 types of squat exercises when performed at the same relative intensity by female athletes.
