Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are the building blocks to more complex movement patterns ( Clark & Metcalfe, 2002 ). FMS are often subdivided into include object control (now referred to in the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 [TGMD-3] as ball skills) and locomotor skills ( Gallahue, Ozumn
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Psychometric Properties of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for Children With Visual Impairments
Ali Brian, Sally Taunton, Lauren J. Lieberman, Pamela Haibach-Beach, John Foley, and Sara Santarossa
The Effect of Different Intervention Approaches on Gross Motor Outcomes of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-Analysis
Layne Case and Joonkoo Yun
( Zwaigenbaum et al., 2015 ). One such area of recent research interest is the exploration of gross motor skill performance among children and youth with ASD ( Allen, Bredero, Van Damme, Ulrich, & Simons, 2017 ; Staples & Reid, 2010 ). Several studies suggest that children with ASD have deficits and/or delays
The Effects of Attentional Focus on Brain Function During a Gross Motor Task
Louisa D. Raisbeck, Jed A. Diekfuss, Dustin R. Grooms, and Randy Schmitz
focus and motor skill may allow for more precise rehabilitation guidelines based on specific neural mechanisms. To date this has been done primarily using fine motor movements (key pressing tasks) due to the logistics of performing a gross motor movement using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI
Inter- and Intrarater Reliabilities of the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition Among Experienced TGMD-2 Raters
Hyokju Maeng, E. Kipling Webster, E. Andrew Pitchford, and Dale A. Ulrich
The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD; Ulrich, 1985 , 2000 ) is a widely used assessment to evaluate fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children. The popularity of this assessment is due to the ease of administration and scoring, norm-referenced scores for diagnostic evaluation, and the
The Instructional Sensitivity of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 to Detect Changes in Performance for Young Children With and Without Down Syndrome
Kerri L. Staples, E. Andrew Pitchford, and Dale A. Ulrich
across their lifespan. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) is one of the most common measures used to evaluate motor skill competence for children between the ages of 3 and 10 years ( Ulrich, 1985 , 2000 , 2019 ). The TGMD was strategically designed to match the fundamental motor skills
A Feasibility Trial for Virtual Administration of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Laura A. Prieto, Benazir Meera, Heather Katz, and Luis Columna
The third version of the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-3) is one of the most popular assessments in physical education and physical activity (PA) settings ( Busti Ceccarelli et al., 2020 ; Ulrich, 2016 ). The TGMD-3 examines 13 fundamental motor skills (FMS) divided into two main
Psychiatric Symptoms in Children With Gross Motor Problems
Claudia Emck, Ruud J. Bosscher, Piet C.W. van Wieringen, Theo Doreleijers, and Peter J. Beek
Children with psychiatric disorders often demonstrate gross motor problems. This study investigates if the reverse also holds true by assessing psychiatric symptoms present in children with gross motor problems. Emotional, behavioral, and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), as well as psychosocial problems, were assessed in a sample of 40 children with gross motor problems from an elementary school population (aged 7 through 12 years). Sixty-five percent of the sample met the criteria for psychiatric classification. Anxiety disorders were found most often (45%), followed by ASD (25%) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (15%). Internalizing (51%) and social problems (41%) were prominent, as was “stereotyped behavior” (92%) and “resistance to changes” (92%). Self-perceived incompetence was restricted to domains that were indeed impaired (i.e., the athletic and social domains). The results suggest that children with gross motor problems are strongly at risk for psychiatric problems including anxiety, internalization, and ASD.
Gross Motor Development in Preschool Children with Learning Disabilities
James H. Rimmer and Luke E. Kelly
The purpose of this pilot study was to descriptively evaluate the effects of three different programs on the development of gross motor skills of preschool children with learning disabilities (n = 29). No attempt was made to equate the groups or control for differences between the programs or instructional staff. Two of the programs were used by the respective schools to develop the gross motor skills of their audience. The programs were called occupational therapy (OT) (45–60 min/day, 5 days/week) and adapted physical education (APE) (30 min/day, 4 days/week). A third group was evaluated to determine whether maturational effects had any involvement in gross motor development. This group was called the noninstructional program (NIP) (30 min/day, 2 days/week) and was solely involved in free play. The programs were all in session for the entire school year (33–35 weeks). The results of the study revealed that the children in the APE program made more significant gains across objectives, and particularly on the qualitative measures, than did the children in the OT or NIP groups.
Clinical Validity of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 in Children With Disabilities from the U.S. National Normative Sample
E. Andrew Pitchford and E. Kipling Webster
The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) is a popular assessment of competency in fundamental motor skills (FMS) for children age 3–10 years ( Ulrich, 1985 , 2000 , 2019 ). FMS include locomotor and ball skills that are performed in an upright, bipedal position and are considered to be the
Prediction of the Gross Motor Development Quotient in Young Children Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine/Polydrugs
Carol A. Leitschuh and John M. Dunn
The purpose was to determine predictors of the gross motor development quotient of the Test of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 1985) for young children prenatally exposed to cocaine/polydrugs. Data were collected on 11 variables hypothesized to influence young children’s development. Participants were 28 children (15 males, 13 females), ages 3 to 6 years, exposed prenatally to cocaine/polydrugs and their nonbiological mothers (i.e., primary care providers). Multiple regression procedures indicated support for the hypothesis that the gross motor development quotient is predicted by the interaction of the child’s effortful control, the primary care provider’s understanding and confidence, and the amount of early intervention service the child received. Correlational analysis supported the hypothesis that with this group of children, early motor skill did not predict delay in the gross motor development quotient at ages 3 to 6 years.
