The aquatic sports competitions held during the summer Olympic Games include diving, open-water swimming, pool swimming, synchronized swimming, and water polo. Elite-level performance in each of these sports requires rigorous training and practice to develop the appropriate physiological, biomechanical, artistic, and strategic capabilities specific to each sport. Consequently, the daily training plans of these athletes are quite varied both between and within the sports. Common to all aquatic athletes, however, is that daily training and preparation consumes several hours and involves frequent periods of high-intensity exertion. Nutritional support for this high-level training is a critical element of the preparation of these athletes to ensure the energy and nutrient demands of the training and competition are met. In this article, we introduce the fundamental physical requirements of these sports and specifically explore the energetics of human locomotion in water. Subsequent articles in this issue explore the specific nutritional requirements of each aquatic sport. We hope that such exploration will provide a foundation for future investigation of the roles of optimal nutrition in optimizing performance in the aquatic sports.
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Physical and Energy Requirements of Competitive Swimming Events
David B. Pyne and Rick L. Sharp
Macronutrient Intakes of Male Rugby Union Players: A Review
Katherine Elizabeth Black, Alistair David Black, and Dane Frances Baker
activity (%) Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere a Southern Hemisphere b Standing No locomotion 41 ± 10 Speed walking 0–6 2,800 37 Locomotion with no flight phase 27 ± 7 Jogging 6–12 1,900 27 Locomotion with flight phase but minimal arm swing 20 ± 4 Cruising 12–14 700 10 Striding 14–18 990 14 Similar to jogging
Energetics of a World-Tour Female Road Cyclist During a Multistage Race (Tour de France Femmes)
Jose L. Areta, Emily Meehan, Georgie Howe, and Leanne M. Redman
improved when fuel availability more closely matches fuel utilization. Given the importance of locomotion for survival in human evolutionary history, it is possible that locomotive capacity (and therefore physical performance) may be prioritized over other functions that are not immediately necessary for
Frequent Carbohydrate Ingestion Reduces Muscle Glycogen Depletion and Postpones Fatigue Relative to a Single Bolus
Campbell Menzies, Michael Wood, Joel Thomas, Aaron Hengist, Jean-Philippe Walhin, Robbie Jones, Kostas Tsintzas, Javier T. Gonzalez, and James A. Betts
have a more limited capacity than cyclists to carry and ingest foods during locomotion and anecdotally suffer from greater gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort (possibly due to the movement of the trunk churning stomach contents; Peters et al., 2000 ; Rudzki et al., 1995 ). Moreover, mechanistically, if
Whey Protein Augments Leucinemia and Postexercise p70S6K1 Activity Compared With a Hydrolyzed Collagen Blend When in Recovery From Training With Low Carbohydrate Availability
Samuel G. Impey, Kelly M. Hammond, Robert Naughton, Carl Langan-Evans, Sam O. Shepherd, Adam P. Sharples, Jessica Cegielski, Kenneth Smith, Stewart Jeromson, David L. Hamilton, Graeme L. Close, and James P. Morton
populations. While the use of a gel delivery matrix appears particularly beneficial for endurance athletes given the practical advantages of feeding while in locomotion ( Impey et al., 2015 ), it is noteworthy that collagen-based formulations likely have lower leucine content and digestibility compared with
Energy Expenditure of Elite Male and Female Professional Tennis Players During Habitual Training
Daniel G. Ellis, James P. Morton, Graeme L. Close, and Tim F. Donovan
locomotion and free-living . European Journal of Applied Physiology, 96 ( 5 ), 517 – 524 . 10.1007/s00421-005-0112-6 Brage , S. , Brage , N. , Franks , P.W. , Ekelund , U. , Wong , M.Y. , Andersen , L.B. , Froberg , K. , & Wareham , N.J. ( 2004 ). Branched equation modeling of
Protein Recommendations for Weight Loss in Elite Athletes: A Focus on Body Composition and Performance
Amy J. Hector and Stuart M. Phillips
, lipid oxidation, and resting energy expenditure), and, perhaps most importantly for elite athletes, skeletal muscle is crucial for locomotion and athletic performance ( Wolfe, 2006 ). Therefore, to reduce the negative consequences of skeletal muscle loss and performance that may accompany caloric
Collagen and Vitamin C Supplementation Increases Lower Limb Rate of Force Development
Dana M. Lis, Matthew Jordan, Timothy Lipuma, Tayler Smith, Karine Schaal, and Keith Baar
store and return elastic energy, minimizing the energetic cost of locomotion ( Maffiuletti et al., 2016 ) and improving RFD. This is seen in jumping athletes where the plant leg has a significantly greater Achilles tendon stiffness compared with the drive leg ( Kubo & Ikebukuro, 2019 ). Changes in joint
