Stereotype threat occurs when knowledge of a negative stereotype about a social group leads to less-than-optimal performance by members of that group. Although the stereotype threat phenomenon has been extensively studied in academic and cognitively-based tasks, it has received little attention in sport. This article reviews the existent literature on stereotype threat and discusses its implications for sports performance. The causal mechanisms of stereotype threat in sport are examined, followed by a discussion of why the cognitive processes thought to govern negative stereotype-induced performance decrements in academic and cognitively based tasks (e.g., GRE or SAT tests) may not unequivocally extend to sport skills. Finally, factors that should moderate the impact of stereotype threat in sport are outlined. Because stereotype threat has important consequences for athletics (e.g., impairing athletic performance, maintaining the underrepresentation of minority athletes in certain sports), it is a phenomenon that deserves greater attention in sport and exercise psychology research.
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Stereotype Threat and Sport: Can Athletic Performance Be Threatened?
Sian L. Beilock and Allen R. McConnell
Remedying Stereotype Threat Effects in Spectator Sports
Yonghwan Chang, Vicki Schull, and Lisa A. Kihl
effects of these stereotypes on women’s involvement in sports and sports viewership should not be understated. Research on stereotype threat (e.g., Stone, 2002 ) suggests that the activation of negative stereotypes is likely to lead to a decrease in interest ( Farrell et al., 2011 ) and performance
Stereotype Threat and Interscholastic Athletic Leadership
James P. Strode, W. Andrew Czekanski, Anna W. Parkman, and Meredith K. Scarlata
“vulnerability to stereotype threat requires individuals to have knowledge of the stereotypes linked to their stigmatized social identities” (p. 277). Von Hippel et al. ( 2011 ) conducted three studies looking at ST and consequences for working women finding that ST has a direct link to identity separation and
Stereotype Threat in Sport: Recommendations for Applied Practice and Research
Daniel M. Smith and Sarah E. Martiny
achievement settings is called stereotype threat (ST). Since the seminal paper by Steele and Aronson ( 1995 ), the detrimental ST effect has been demonstrated in numerous empirical studies, many of which are cited throughout this paper, using cognitive or motor performance tasks. The effect of ST is insidious
Can Stereotype Threat Affect Motor Performance in the Absence of Explicit Monitoring Processes?: Evidence Using a Strength Task
Aïna Chalabaev, Jeanick Brisswalter, Rémi Radel, Stephen A. Coombes, Christopher Easthope, and Corentin Clément-Guillotin
Previous evidence shows that stereotype threat impairs complex motor skills through increased conscious monitoring of task performance. Given that one-step motor skills may not be susceptible to these processes, we examined whether performance on a simple strength task may be reduced under stereotype threat. Forty females and males performed maximum voluntary contractions under stereotypical or nullified-stereotype conditions. Results showed that the velocity of force production within the first milliseconds of the contraction decreased in females when the negative stereotype was induced, whereas maximal force did not change. In males, the stereotype induction only increased maximal force. These findings suggest that stereotype threat may impair motor skills in the absence of explicit monitoring processes, by influencing the planning stage of force production.
The Effect of Gender Stereotype Threat and Conceptions of Ability on Motor Learning and Working Memory
Narges Nahidi, Esmaeel Saemi, Mohammadreza Doustan, Joshua Aronson, and Raphaël Laurin
of individuals, particularly women ( Fredricks & Eccles, 2005 ). Stereotype threat is a social, affective, and cognitive variable that arises when stereotype beliefs held about a certain group and, in connection to a particular area, can undermine performance ( Steele & Aronson, 1995 ) and learning
Differences in Sport Management Doctoral Students’ Experiences With Gender Microaggressions and Stereotype Threat by Gender
Sarah B. Williams, Elizabeth A. Taylor, T. Christopher Greenwell, and Brigitte M. Burpo
for Sport Management, 2017 ). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the differences in the experiences of gender microaggressions and stereotype threat by gender in sport management doctoral students. Literature Review Doctoral Programs and the Student Experience Although sport
Introducing the Task as a Challenge Does Not Mitigate the Negative Effect of Gender Stereotype Threat on Motor Skill Learning in Adolescents
Sara Soltanifar, Rasool Abedanzadeh, Adele Ahmadinezhad, and Seyyed Mohammadreza Mousavi
Most likely, each of us have heard phrases and seen cues throughout our lives that contain information about gender roles and the expectations of what women and men are supposed to do. Gender stereotype threat attempts to predict or prejudge the performance of individuals belonging to the targeted
Overweight Stereotype Threat Negatively Impacts the Learning of a Balance Task
Priscila Lopes Cardozo and Suzete Chiviacowsky
Several studies have demonstrated the detrimental effects of stereotype threat on the performance of academic and motor skills, while little attention has been given to the effects of stereotypical conditions on motor learning. The objective of the current study was to investigate the effects of overweight stereotype threat on women learning a balance task. Participants practiced 10 trials of a dynamic balance task and their learning was observed in a retention test one day later. Before practice, the stereotype threat (ST) group received instructions introducing the task as influenced by individual differences, whereby overweight people usually present worse outcomes. For the reduced stereotype threat group (RST), instructions informed them that the task was not influenced by individual differences. Participants also filled out a questionnaire measuring intrinsic motivation. The results showed that performance and learning, as well as perceived competence, were enhanced for participants of the RST group compared with participants of the ST group. The findings provide evidence that overweight stereotype threat affects the learning of motor skills.
Do Achievement Goals Mediate Stereotype Threat?: An Investigation on Females’ Soccer Performance
Aïna Chalabaev, Philippe Sarrazin, Jeff Stone, and François Cury
This research investigated stereotype threat effects on women’s performance in sports and examined the mediation of this effect by achievement goals. The influence of two stereotypes—relative to the poor athletic ability and the poor technical soccer ability of women—were studied. Fifty-one female soccer players were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, introducing the task as diagnostic of athletic ability, technical soccer ability, or sports psychology. Next, they filled out a questionnaire measuring achievement goals and performed a soccer dribbling task. Results showed that compared with the control condition, females’ performance significantly decreased in the athletic ability condition and tended to decrease in the technical soccer ability condition. Moreover, participants endorsed a performance-avoidance (relative to performance-approach) goal when the stereotypes were activated. However, this goal endorsement was not related to performance. The implications of these results for understanding the role of stereotypes in gender inequalities in sports are discussed.
