The prediction of sporting performance is clearly important to athletes and coaches. It has been suggested (Bandura, 1977) that one's expectations are more important predictors of behavior than is previous behavior. Evidence to support this covers a number of tasks, including physical strength and sporting activities. The present study, involving 14 girl gymnasts, examines the accuracy of athletes' expectations, their coach's expectations, and their previous competition scores as predictors of competition performance. Athletes' expectations are found to be more accurate estimates than are previous scores, while coach's expectations are more accurate still. A person's expectations seem to be important variables even in sports requiring a high degree of physical skill, and this finding has important implications for sport psychology.
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Self-efficacy as a Predictor of Performance in Competitive Gymnastics
Christina Lee
Psyching Up for a Muscular Endurance Task: Effects of Image Content on Performance and Mood State
Christina Lee
There is a shortage of evidence regarding exactly how mental imagery works to enhance performance. This study sought to determine whether it is the imagining of the task that is crucial or simply the positive aspects of a mental image. In the first experiment, 52 male students used task relevant imagery, task irrelevant imagery, or a distraction control procedure before performing an analogue task. Those in the task relevant condition showed significantly greater improvements over baseline. The second experiment involved 142 male students and included assessment of mood state following psyching up. Again the task relevant group showed significantly greater improvements, which were not related to mood states. These findings suggest that the specific content of mental imagery is crucial in determining its effect on performance. The effect does not appear to depend on alterations of mood state and may operate through cognitive preparation.
Goal Setting and Performance in a Novel Coordination Task: Mediating Mechanisms
Matthew Smith and Christina Lee
This study examined the facilitatory effect of goal setting in physical performance. Three potential mechanisms that may mediate this effect are described: increases in time spent practicing, promotion of effective training strategies, and increases in commitment resulting from public goal setting. Students (N=51) performed a novel task under one of three conditions: public goal setting, private goal setting, and no goal setting. Goals selected, time spent practicing, strategies used during practice, and actual performance were assessed. Subjects in the two goal-setting groups showed better performance than those in the control-group; those in the public goal-setting group spent the most time in practice, but this was not reflected in better performance. Test performance was predicted by baseline performance and by the goal set; practice time, training strategy, and public goal setting did not account for further variance in performance. Although this study failed to find a mediating effect for these three mechanisms, the results must be interpreted with caution.
Exercise by Mail: A Mediated Behavior-Change Program for Aerobic Exercise
Neville Owen, Lucio Naccarella, Christina Lee, and Kevin Haag
Regular, vigorous physical activity (aerobic exercise) appears to have significant benefits in preventing disease, but exercise levels continue to be low in spite of the wide availability of intensive fitness programs. Self-instructional behavior-change packages can reach more people than face-to-face methods, and can address a range of problem behaviors. This study investigated the effectiveness of a self-instructional training program for aerobic exercise. Participants were allocated randomly to an exercise correspondence course involving several mailings of information (n=53), or to exactly the same program mailed in a single package (n=52). People who initially showed interest in the course but withdrew before it began (n=33), and participants in standard fitness classes (n=31), were used as comparison groups. All courses were 12-week aerobic programs of gradually increasing intensity. At the end of the program, participants in the single-package course were significantly more active than those in the multiple-mailing program, and were similar to those in the fitness class. At a 10-month follow-up, there were no significant differences among the reported physical activity levels of participants in the four different conditions. Despite the somewhat weak effects obtained in this investigation, programs that can be administered by mail can reach large numbers of people who may wish to change health-related behaviors.
Can Insoles Be Used to Improve Static and Dynamic Balance of Community-Dwelling Older Adults? A Systematic Review on Recent Advances and Future Perspectives
Christina Zong-Hao Ma, Wing-Kai Lam, Bao-Chi Chang, and Winson Chiu-Chun Lee
This systematic review investigated the effects of orthopedic, vibrating, and textured insoles on the postural balance of community-dwelling older adults. Articles published in English from 1999 to 2019 investigating the effects of (a) orthopedic, (b) vibrating, and (c) textured insoles on static and dynamic balance in community-dwelling older adults were considered. Twenty-four trials with a total of 634 older adults were identified. The information gathered generally supported the balance-improving effects of orthopedic, vibrating, and textured insoles in both static and dynamic conditions among community-dwelling older adults. Further examination found that rigidity, texture patterns, vibration thresholds, and components like arch supports and heel cups are important factors in determining whether insoles can improve balance. This review highlights the potential of insoles for improving the static and dynamic balance of community-dwelling older adults. Good knowledge in insole designs and an understanding of medical conditions of older adults are required when attempts are made to improve postural balance using insoles.
Segmented Forefoot Plate in Basketball Footwear: Does it Influence Performance and Foot Joint Kinematics and Kinetics?
Wing-Kai Lam, Winson Chiu-Chun Lee, Wei Min Lee, Christina Zong-Hao Ma, and Pui Wah Kong
This study examined the effects of shoes’ segmented forefoot stiffness on athletic performance and ankle and metatarsophalangeal joint kinematics and kinetics in basketball movements. Seventeen university basketball players performed running vertical jumps and 5-m sprints at maximum effort with 3 basketball shoes of various forefoot plate conditions (medial plate, medial + lateral plates, and no-plate control). One-way repeated measures ANOVAs were used to examine the differences in athletic performance, joint kinematics, and joint kinetics among the 3 footwear conditions (α = .05). Results indicated that participants wearing medial + lateral plates shoes demonstrated 2.9% higher jump height than those wearing control shoes (P = .02), but there was no significant differences between medial plate and control shoes (P > .05). Medial plate shoes produced greater maximum plantar flexion velocity than the medial + lateral plates shoes (P < .05) during sprinting. There were no significant differences in sprint time. These findings implied that inserting plates spanning both the medial and lateral aspects of the forefoot could enhance jumping, but not sprinting performances. The use of a medial plate alone, although induced greater plantar flexion velocity at the metatarsophalangeal joint during sprinting, was not effective in improving jump heights or sprint times.
Comprehensive Gait Analysis of Healthy Older Adults Who Have Undergone Long-Distance Walking
Mustafa M.O. Elhadi, Christina Z. Ma, Duo W.C. Wong, Anson H.P. Wan, and Winson C.C. Lee
Many older adults do not adhere to the recommended physical activity levels. This study examines the gait changes upon long-distance walking among healthy older adults. Gait tests of 24 adults aged 65 or more were conducted at baseline and at the end of 30 and 60 min of treadmill walking. Spatial temporal, kinematic, and kinetic gait data were computed. Perceived level of exertion was evaluated for each subject. Ten subjects (group B) perceived higher exertion levels than the remaining 14 subjects (group A). After walking, group B had significant reductions in dominant-side ankle joint range of motion and power, suggesting lower-leg muscle fatigue, which appeared to be compensated by significantly increased nondominant-side knee and hip motions. These changes were not observed in group A. Differences in gait parameters between groups A and B implied that some biomechanical factors might contribute to the lack of walking of some older adults.
Status and Trends of Physical Activity Surveillance, Policy, and Research in 164 Countries: Findings From the Global Observatory for Physical Activity—GoPA! 2015 and 2020 Surveys
Andrea Ramírez Varela, Pedro C. Hallal, Juliana Mejía Grueso, Željko Pedišić, Deborah Salvo, Anita Nguyen, Bojana Klepac, Adrian Bauman, Katja Siefken, Erica Hinckson, Adewale L. Oyeyemi, Justin Richards, Elena Daniela Salih Khidir, Shigeru Inoue, Shiho Amagasa, Alejandra Jauregui, Marcelo Cozzensa da Silva, I-Min Lee, Melody Ding, Harold W. Kohl III, Ulf Ekelund, Gregory W. Heath, Kenneth E. Powell, Charlie Foster, Aamir Raoof Memon, Abdoulaye Doumbia, Abdul Roof Rather, Abdur Razzaque, Adama Diouf, Adriano Akira Hino, Albertino Damasceno, Alem Deksisa Abebe, Alex Antonio Florindo, Alice Mannocci, Altyn Aringazina, Andrea Backović Juričan, Andrea Poffet, Andrew Decelis, Angela Carlin, Angelica Enescu, Angélica María Ochoa Avilés, Anna Kontsevaya, Annamaria Somhegyi, Anne Vuillemin, Asmaa El Hamdouchi, Asse Amangoua Théodore, Bojan Masanovic, Brigid M. Lynch, Catalina Medina, Cecilia del Campo, Chalchisa Abdeta, Changa Moreways, Chathuranga Ranasinghe, Christina Howitt, Christine Cameron, Danijel Jurakić, David Martinez-Gomez, Dawn Tladi, Debrework Tesfaye Diro, Deepti Adlakha, Dušan Mitić, Duško Bjelica, Elżbieta Biernat, Enock M. Chisati, Estelle Victoria Lambert, Ester Cerin, Eun-Young Lee, Eva-Maria Riso, Felicia Cañete Villalba, Felix Assah, Franjo Lovrić, Gerardo A. Araya-Vargas, Giuseppe La Torre, Gloria Isabel Niño Cruz, Gul Baltaci, Haleama Al Sabbah, Hanna Nalecz, Hilde Liisa Nashandi, Hyuntae Park, Inés Revuelta-Sánchez, Jackline Jema Nusurupia, Jaime Leppe Zamora, Jaroslava Kopcakova, Javier Brazo-Sayavera, Jean-Michel Oppert, Jinlei Nie, John C. Spence, John Stewart Bradley, Jorge Mota, Josef Mitáš, Junshi Chen, Kamilah S Hylton, Karel Fromel, Karen Milton, Katja Borodulin, Keita Amadou Moustapha, Kevin Martinez-Folgar, Lara Nasreddine, Lars Breum Christiansen, Laurent Malisoux, Leapetswe Malete, Lorelie C. Grepo-Jalao, Luciana Zaranza Monteiro, Lyutha K. Al Subhi, Maja Dakskobler, Majed Alnaji, Margarita Claramunt Garro, Maria Hagströmer, Marie H. Murphy, Matthew Mclaughlin, Mercedes Rivera-Morales, Mickey Scheinowitz, Mimoza Shkodra, Monika Piątkowska, Moushumi Chaudhury, Naif Ziyad Alrashdi, Nanette Mutrie, Niamh Murphy, Norhayati Haji Ahmad, Nour A. Obeidat, Nubia Yaneth Ruiz Gómez, Nucharapon Liangruenrom, Oscar Díaz Arnesto, Oscar Flores-Flores, Oscar Incarbone, Oyun Chimeddamba, Pascal Bovet, Pedro Magalhães, Pekka Jousilahti, Piyawat Katewongsa, Rafael Alexander Leandro Gómez, Rawan Awni Shihab, Reginald Ocansey, Réka Veress, Richard Marine, Rolando Carrizales-Ramos, Saad Younis Saeed, Said El-Ashker, Samuel Green, Sandra Kasoma, Santiago Beretervide, Se-Sergio Baldew, Selby Nichols, Selina Khoo, Seyed Ali Hosseini, Shifalika Goenka, Shima Gholamalishahi, Soewarta Kosen, Sofie Compernolle, Stefan Paul Enescu, Stevo Popovic, Susan Paudel, Susana Andrade, Sylvia Titze, Tamu Davidson, Theogene Dusingizimana, Thomas E. Dorner, Tracy L. Kolbe-Alexander, Tran Thanh Huong, Vanphanom Sychareun, Vera Jarevska-Simovska, Viliami Kulikefu Puloka, Vincent Onywera, Wanda Wendel-Vos, Yannis Dionyssiotis, and Michael Pratt
Background: Physical activity (PA) surveillance, policy, and research efforts need to be periodically appraised to gain insight into national and global capacities for PA promotion. The aim of this paper was to assess the status and trends in PA surveillance, policy, and research in 164 countries. Methods: We used data from the Global Observatory for Physical Activity (GoPA!) 2015 and 2020 surveys. Comprehensive searches were performed for each country to determine the level of development of their PA surveillance, policy, and research, and the findings were verified by the GoPA! Country Contacts. Trends were analyzed based on the data available for both survey years. Results: The global 5-year progress in all 3 indicators was modest, with most countries either improving or staying at the same level. PA surveillance, policy, and research improved or remained at a high level in 48.1%, 40.6%, and 42.1% of the countries, respectively. PA surveillance, policy, and research scores decreased or remained at a low level in 8.3%, 15.8%, and 28.6% of the countries, respectively. The highest capacity for PA promotion was found in Europe, the lowest in Africa and low- and lower-middle-income countries. Although a large percentage of the world’s population benefit from at least some PA policy, surveillance, and research efforts in their countries, 49.6 million people are without PA surveillance, 629.4 million people are without PA policy, and 108.7 million live in countries without any PA research output. A total of 6.3 billion people or 88.2% of the world’s population live in countries where PA promotion capacity should be significantly improved. Conclusion: Despite PA is essential for health, there are large inequalities between countries and world regions in their capacity to promote PA. Coordinated efforts are needed to reduce the inequalities and improve the global capacity for PA promotion.