The purpose of this study was to examine the estimated total energy expenditure (TEE) and physical activity patterns of adolescent distance runners. Twenty-eight (20 male, 8 female) adolescent distance runners self-reported their daily physical activity with the Bouchard 3-d diary. Mean values for TEE, 57.4 ± 11.6 and 51.0 ± 9.8 kcal·kg−1·d−1, and activity energy expenditure (AEE), 26.7 ± 10.4 and 21.0 ± 8.8 kcal·kg−1·d−1, when expressed per kilogram body mass were not significantly different between males and females, respectively (P = 0.18). When expressed in absolute terms, TEE, 3609 ± 927 and 2467 ± 426 kcal/d, and AEE, 1688 ± 746 and 977 ± 269 kcal/d, were significantly higher in males than in females, respectively. The results document the energy expenditure and self-reported physical activity of adolescent distance runners and might be used to address recommendations for adequate dietary energy requirements in this group, which in turn is important for energy balance in the context of normal growth, health, and physical performance.
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Estimated Energy Expenditure and Physical Activity Patterns of Adolescent Distance Runners
Joey C. Eisenmann and Eric E. Wickel
Maturity-Related Differences in Physical Activity among 13- to 14-Year-Old Adolescents
Eric E. Wickel and Joey C. Eisenmann
The age-related decline in physical activity during adolescence is well documented; however, little is known about differences in physical activity among early, average, and late maturing adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between maturity status and physical activity among 167 adolescents who were 13–14 years old. The maturity offset was derived and biological maturity groups were created. Habitual physical activity was determined with a pedometer over a 7-day period. No significant maturity-group differences were found for physical activity. The results of this study did not demonstrate significant differences in physical activity as determined by a pedometer among early, average, and late maturing 13- to 14-year-olds.
Physical Activity, Media Time, and Body Composition in Young Children
Kate A. Heelan and Joey C. Eisenmann
Background:
It is uncertain as to whether physical activity (PA) may influence the body composition of young children.
Purpose:
To determine the association between PA, media time, and body composition in children age 4 to 7 y.
Methods:
100 children (52 girls, 48 boys) were assessed for body-mass index (BMI), body fat, fat mass (FM), and fat-free mass using dual energy x-ray absorbtiometryptiometry (DXA). PA was monitored using accelerometers and media time was reported by parental proxy.
Results:
In general, correlations were low to moderate at best (r < 0.51), but in the expected direction. Total media time and TV were significantly associated with BMI (r = 0.51, P < 0.05) and FM (r = 0.29 to 0.30, P < 0.05) in girls. In boys, computer usage was significantly associated with FM in boys (r = 0.31, P < 0.05).
Conclusion:
The relatively low correlations suggest that other factors may influence the complex, multi-factorial body composition phenotype of young children.
The Biological Basis of Physical Activity in Children: Revisited
Joey C. Eisenmann and Eric E. Wickel
Genetics and Pediatric Exercise Science: A Brief Commentary and Review
Joey C. Eisenmann and Keith Tolfrey
The Cumulative Impact of Physical Activity, Sleep Duration, and Television Time on Adolescent Obesity: 2011 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
Kelly R. Laurson, Joey A. Lee, and Joey C. Eisenmann
Background:
Physical activity (PA), television time (TV), and sleep duration (SLP) are considered individual risk factors for adolescent obesity. Our aim was to investigate the concurrent influence of meeting PA, SLP, and TV recommendations on adolescent obesity utilizing 2011 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey (YRBSS) data.
Methods:
Subjects included 9589 (4874 females) high school students. PA, SLP, and TV were categorized utilizing established national recommendations and youth were cross-tabulated into 1 of 8 groups based on meeting or not meeting each recommendation. Logistic models were used to examine the odds of obesity for each group. Results: Youth meeting the PA recommendation were not at increased odds of obesity, regardless of SLP or TV status. However, not meeting any single recommendation, in general, led to increased odds of not meeting the other two. In boys, 11.8% met all recommendations while 14.1% met 0 recommendations. In girls, only 5.0% met all recommendations while 17.8% met none.
Conclusions:
Boys and girls not meeting any of the recommendations were 4.0 and 3.8 times more likely to be obese compared with their respective referent groups. Further research considering the simultaneous influence these risk factors may have on obesity and on one another is warranted.
Estimating Physical Activity in Children: Impact of Pedometer Wear Time and Metric
Kelly R. Laurson, Gregory J. Welk, and Joey C. Eisenmann
Background:
The purpose of this study was to provide a practical demonstration of the impact of monitoring frame and metric when assessing pedometer-determined physical activity (PA) in youth.
Methods:
Children (N = 1111) were asked to wear pedometers over a 7-day period during which time worn and steps were recorded each day. Varying data-exclusion criteria were used to demonstrate changes in estimates of PA. Steps were expressed using several metrics and criteria, and construct validity was demonstrated via correlations with adiposity.
Results:
Meaningful fluctuations in average steps per day and percentage meeting PA recommendations were apparent when different criteria were used. Children who wore the pedometer longer appeared more active, with each minute the pedometer was worn each day accounting for an approximate increase of 11 and 8 steps for boys and girls, respectively (P < .05). Using more restrictive exclusion criteria led to stronger correlations between indices of steps per day, steps per minute, steps per leg length, steps per minute per leg length, and obesity.
Conclusion:
Wear time has a meaningful impact on estimates of PA. This should be considered when determining exclusion criteria and making comparisons between studies. Results also suggest that incorporating wear time per day and leg length into the metric may increase validity of PA estimates.
Leisure-Time Physical Activity Levels Among Canadian Adolescents, 1981–1998
Joey C. Eisenmann, P.T. Katzmarzyk, and Mark S. Tremblay
Background:
In recent years, it has been noted that children and youth are physically inactive, and physical activity levels have declined over the past decades. However, few empirical studies have been conducted to test this assumption. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine leisure-time physical activity levels among Canadian adolescents 12–19 years of age.
Methods:
Age, sex, geographic, and temporal trends in leisure-time physical activity energy expenditure (AEE) were examined using data from 5 national surveys conducted between 1981 and 1998. AEE was calculated from participants’ questionnaire responses on physical activity participation. General linear models were used to examine the differences in AEE across survey years, geographic regions, sexes, and age groups.
Results:
Males and 12–14-year-olds displayed greater AEE than females and 15–19-year-olds, respectively, and AEE was lowest in Quebec and highest in the West. AEE increased between the 1981 and 1988 surveys and has since remained relatively stable. The prevalence of subjects meeting the 12.6 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 (3 kcal · kg−1 · d−1) recommendation increased from 1981 to 1988. Since 1988, the prevalence of those meeting the 12.6 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 recommendation has decreased in 12–14 year old boys and remained relatively stable in the other groups. In 1998, about 45% of males and 35% of females met the 12.6 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 recommendation. In 1998, about 20% of 12–19-year-old males and 12–14-year-old females met the 25.1 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 (6 kcal · kg−1 · d−1) recommendation, while about 10% of 15–19-year-old females met this recommendation. In females, the prevalence of those meeting the 25.1 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 recommendation has remained relatively stable (about 10%) since 1981 except for an increase between 1996 and 1998 in 12–14-year-old girls. In males, a similar pattern, but not as dramatic, of that observed for the prevalence of those meeting the 12.6 kJ · kg−1 · d−1 emerged—that is, an increase between 1981 and 1988 and then a decrease in 12–14-year-old boys and a stable pattern in 15–19-year-old boys.
Conclusion:
Although self-reported leisure-time physical activity appears to have increased since 1981, a majority of Canadian adolescents do not meet current recommendations for physical activity.
Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity and Weight Status in Rural University Students
Joey C. Eisenmann, R. Todd Bartee, and Krystal D. Damori
Purpose:
The purposes of this study were (a) to describe the prevalence of participation in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and overweight and obesity, and (b) to examine the associations between physical activity and weight status in a sample of university students from a rural university.
Methods:
Data from a representative sample of 773 (361 women, 412 men) students participating in the National College Health Assessment Survey were examined. MVPA and height and body mass were self-reported. The body-mass index (BMI) was derived and used to classify subjects as normal, overweight, or obese.
Results:
Approximately 20% of students were inactive (0 d/wk), and 23% met the recommended amount of MVPA (≥5 d/wk). Prevalence of overweight and obesity was, respectively, 35.7% and 8.5% in men and, respectively, 15.6% and 8.2% in women. Analysis of variance revealed the mean BMI was not significantly different across levels of MVPA. Odds ratios showed higher levels of MVPA were significantly associated with lower risk of obesity in men but not women.
Conclusion:
A large percentage of subjects are inactive or insufficiently active, and self-reported moderate to vigorous physical activity is significantly related to risk of obesity in men. Future studies should measure habitual physical activity or energy expenditure and body composition. Additional factors affecting obesity, such as television viewing and other sedentary behaviors, dietary intake, and heritability, should also be considered.
Physical Activity, Stress, and Metabolic Risk Score in 8- to 18-Year-Old Boys
Megan E. Holmes, Joey C. Eisenmann, Panteleimon Ekkekakis, and Douglas Gentile
Background:
We examined whether physical activity modifies the relationship between stress and the metabolic risk score in 8- to 18-year-old males (n = 37).
Methods:
Physical activity (PA) and television (TV)/videogame (VG) use were assessed via accelerometer and questionnaire, respectively. Stress was determined from self-report measures. A metabolic risk score (MRS) was created by summing age-standardized residuals for waist circumference, mean arterial pressure, glycosylated hemoglobin, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Results:
Correlations between PA and MRS were low (r < –.13), and TV and VG were moderately associated with MRS (r = .39 and .43, respectively). Correlations between stress-related variables and MRS ranged from r = .19 to .64. After partitioning by PA, significant correlations were observed in the low PA group between school- and sports-related self-esteem and anxiety with the MRS.
Conclusions:
The results provide suggestive evidence that PA might modify the relationship between stress and MRS in male adolescents.
