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This study investigated the relationship between runners’ perceptions of fluid needs and drinking behavior under conditions of compensable heat stress (ambient temperature = 20.5 ± 0.7 °C, 68.9 °F; relative humidity = 76.6%). Eighteen experienced runners (15 men, 40.5 ± 2.5 y, and 3 women, 42 ± 2.3 y) were given ad libitum access to a sports drink (6% carbohydrate-electrolyte solution) at Miles 2, 4, 6, and 8. After the run (75.5 ± 8.0 min), subjects completed questionnaires that required them to estimate their individual fluid intake and sweat loss. Dehydration averaged 1.9% ± 0.8% of initial body weight (a mean sweat loss of 21.6 ± 5.1 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹). Subjects replaced only 30.5% ± 18.1% of sweat loss and underestimated their sweat loss by 42.5% ± 36.6% (P ≤ 0.001). Subjects’ self-estimations of fluid intake (5.2 ± 3.2 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹) were not significantly different from actual fluid intake (6.1 ± 3.4 mL·kg⁻¹·h⁻¹) and were significantly correlated (r = 0.63, P = 0.005). The data indicate that even under favorable conditions, experienced runners voluntarily dehydrate (P ≤ 0.001), possibly because they are unable to accurately estimate sweat loss and consequently cannot subjectively judge how much fluid to ingest to prevent dehydration. This conclusion suggests that runners should not depend on self-assessment to maintain adequate hydration, underscores the need for runners to enhance their ability to self-assess sweat losses, and suggests that a predetermined regimen of fluid ingestion might be necessary if they wish to maintain more optimal hydration.

The fluid and food intakes of 7 male participants in a 100-km ultramarathon were recorded. The mean exercise time was 10 hr 29 min. Nutrient analysis revealed a mean inlrarace energy intake of 4.233 kJ. with 88.6% derived from carbohydrate. 6.7% from fat, and 4.7% from protein. Fluid intake varied widely. 3.3–1 1.1 L, with a mean of 5.7 L. The mean decrease in plasma volume at 100 km was 7.3%, accompanied by an estimated mean sweat rale of 0.86 L ⋅ hr⁻¹. Blood glucose concentrations remained normal during the event, and free fatty acids and glycerol were elevated both during and at the conclusion of the event. No significant correlations were found between absolute amounts and rates of ingestion of carbohydrate and/or fluid and race performance.

Fluid losses (measured by body weight changes) and voluntary fluid intakes were measured in elite basketball, netball, and soccer teams during typical summer and winter exercise sessions to determine fluid requirements and the degree of fluid replacement. Each subject was weighed in minimal clothing before and immediately after training, weights, and competition sessions; fluid intake, duration of exercise, temperature and humidity, and opportunity to drink were recorded. Sweat rates were greatest during competition sessions and significantly lower during weights sessions for all sports. Seasonal variation in dehydration (%DH) was not as great as may have been expected, particularly in sports played indoors. Factors influencing fluid replacement during exercise included provision of an individual water bottle, proximity to water bottles during sessions, encouragement to drink, rules of the game, duration and number of breaks or substitutions, and awareness of personal sweat rates. Guidelines for optimizing fluid intakes in these three sports are provided.

This study examined the effects of serial reductions in energy and fluid intake on two simulated boxing performances separated by 2 days recovery. Eight amateur boxers (age: 23.6 ± 3.2 years; height 175 ± 5 cm; body mass [BM] 73.3 ± 8.3 kg [Mean ± SD]) performed two simulated boxing bouts (BB) under normal (N-trial) and restricted (R-trial) diets in a counterbalanced design over 5 days. The trials were separated by a 9-day period of normal dietary behavior (X-trial). BM was recorded on days 1, 3, and 5 of each trial. Simulated bouts of three, 3-min rounds with 1-min recovery were completed on days 3 (BB1) and 5 (BB2) of each 5-day trial. Punching force (N) was recorded from 8 sets of 7 punches by a purpose-built boxing ergometer. Heart rate (f_C) was monitored continuously (PE3000 Polar Sports Tester, Kempele, Finland), and blood lactate (BLa) and glucose (BG) were determined 4-min post-performance (2300 StaPlus, YSI, Ohio). Energy and fluid intakes were significantly lower in the R-trial (p < .05). Body mass was maintained during the N-trial but fell 3% (p < .05) during the R-trial. There were no significant differences in end-of-bout f_C or post-bout BG, but BLa was higher in the N- than the R-trial (p < .05). R-trial punching forces were 3.2% and 4.6% lower, respectively, compared to the corresponding N-trial bouts, but the differences did not reach statistical significance. These results suggest that energy and fluid restrictions in weight-governed sports do not always lead to a significant decrease in performance, but because of the small sample size and big variations in individual performances, these findings should be interpreted with care.

The purpose of this study was to document eating strategies employed by runners during a 160-km race, and to identify eating patterns that predispose the runner to disturbed mental or gastrointestinal functioning. We monitored intake in 19 volunteers during the 12 hours pre-race. Intake was determined by interview with runners approximately every 12 km throughout the race. The mean finish time was 24.3 hours, with 4 runners not completing the race. Body mass decreased during the race, 75.9 ± 2.3 kg to 74.4 ± 2.2 kg (p < .001). Runners ingested 2643 kcals during the 12 hours prerace (68% carbohydrate) and 3.8 L of fluid. During the race 6047 kcal, 18 L of fluid, and 12 g of sodium were consumed. Gastrointestinal distress (GI) was experienced by half of the participants, but was unrelated to food or fluid intake. Upper GI symptoms were more prevalent than lower and occurred mainly after 88 km. Runners with GI distress tended to complete fewer training miles (p = .10) and to do shorter training runs (p = .08). Half of the volunteers reported mental status changes (MSC), such as confusion or dizziness. Runners with MSC had greater intake of total calories, carbohydrate, and fluid (p < .05) than runners without MSC. They also completed shorter training runs (p = .03). Caloric and moisture intake for all runners far exceeded intakes described previously. Although intake did not match energy expenditure, it may represent the upper limit for absorption during exercise, and very high food and/or fluid intake appears to lead to perturbed mental status.

Thirty-two elite junior athletes in two age categories, older than or equal to IS years old (O15) (8 females and 9 males) and less than 15 years old (U15) (8 females and 7 males), performed a laboratory-based duathlon (run-ride-run). At the completion of the event, significant body mass losses were recorded for all groups. Compared with the other three groups, the O15 males lost body mass at a greater absolute rate (1.26 ±0.06 kg ⋅ hr⁻¹ vs. a mean of 0.62 ±0.11 kg ⋅ hr⁻¹ for the other three groups) and a greater relative rate (1.95 ± 0.10% BM ⋅ hr⁻¹ vs. a mean of 1.23 ± 0.19 %BM ⋅ hr⁻¹ for the other three groups) (p < .05). No differences were observed between groups for fluid consumption. Subjects consumed more fluid (p < .05) during the cycle phase and postevent than preevenl or during the run phases. Results indicated that the athletes' fluid intake practices were insufficient to maintain adequate hydration during the simulated event.

The purpose of the study was to determine the hydration status, fluid intake, and electrolyte losses of 21 male professional youth soccer players (age 17.1 ± 0.7 y) training in a cool environment. Pretraining and posttraining measurements of body mass, urine (freezing-point osmolality method), and sweat concentration (flame-emission spectroscopy) were collected. Fourteen players were found to be hypohydrated before training. The amount of fluid lost due to exercise equated to a 1.7% loss in body mass, which equated to a gross dehydration loss of 0.5%. Overall, the soccer players replaced 46% ± 88% of sweat loss during training, and only 4 remained hypohydrated after training. No significant correlations between sweat loss and sweat concentrations of Na⁺ (r = –.11, P = .67) or K⁺ (r = .14, P = .58) were found, but there was a significant correlation with Mg²⁺ (r = –.58, P < .009). This study found large variability in pretraining hydration status that the players were able to rehydrate during the training sessions. However, given the numbers starting training in a hypohydrated state, adequate hydration status before training should be considered by youth players, coaches, and sports-science support staff.

Runners are unlikely to consume fluid during training bouts increasing the importance of recovery rehydration efforts. This study assessed urine specific gravity (U_SG) responses following runs in the heat with different recovery fluid intake volumes. Thirteen male runners completed 3 evening running sessions resulting in approximately 2,200 ± 300 ml of sweat loss (3.1 ± 0.4% body mass) followed by a standardized dinner and breakfast. Beverage fluid intake (pre/postbreakfast) equaled 1,565/2,093 ml (low; L), 2,065/2,593 ml (moderate; M) and 2,565/3,356 mL (high; H). Voids were collected in separate containers. Increased urine output resulted in no differences (p > .05) in absolute mean fluid retention for waking or first postbreakfast voids. Night void averages excluding the first void postrun (1.025 ± 0.008; 1.013 ± 0.008; 1.006 ± 0.003), first morning (1.024 ± 0.004; 1.015 ± 0.005; 1.014 ± 0.005), and postbreakfast (1.022 ± 0.007; 1.014 ± 0.007; 1.008 ± 0.003) U_SG were higher (p < .05) for L versus M and H respectively and more clearly differentiated fluid intake volume between L and M than color or thirst sensation. Waking (r = -0.66) and postbreakfast (r = -0.71) U_SG were both significantly correlated (p < .001) with fluid replacement percentage, but not absolute fluid retention. Fluid intake M was reported as most similar to normal consumption (5.6 ± 1.0 on 0–10 scale) after breakfast and equaled 122 ± 16% of sweat losses. Retention data suggests consumption above this level is not warranted or actually practiced by most runners drinking ad libitum, but that periodic prerun U_SG assessment may be useful for coaches to detect runners that habitually consume low levels of fluids between training bouts in warm seasons.