risk of OA (15% per kg/m 2 ), greater pain, and lower functional abilities with their prosthetics, and they are ∼6× more likely to experience a fall-related injury. 5 , 9 – 12 This information brings into question what sex differences are contributing to the different comorbidities associated with
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Sex Differences in Spatiotemporal Gait Parameters of Transtibial Amputees
Tess M.R. Carswell, Brenton G. Hordacre, Marc D. Klimstra, and Joshua W. Giles
Sex Differences in World-Record Performance: The Influence of Sport Discipline and Competition Duration
Øyvind Sandbakk, Guro Strøm Solli, and Hans-Christer Holmberg
women. For example, the sex differences of world records in running races from 100 m to the marathon declined gradually until the 1990s, 2 , 3 with similar trends in most other sports, as well. In fact, the linear regressions predicted that women would soon outrun men. However, as expected from the sex
Sex Differences in Physiological Determinants of Performance in Elite Adolescent, Junior, and Senior Cross-Country Skiers
Ove Sollie and Thomas Losnegard
relative body fat, and higher concentration of red blood cells and total red blood cell mass in men than in women. 2 Throughout adolescence, the sex difference in endurance performance approaches the sex difference observed in senior athletes, 3 , 4 which has been found to be approximately 8% to 12%. 2
Sex Differences in Athletic Performance
Lynda B. Ransdell and Christine L. Wells
Do women out-perform men in endurance sports? Are women as strong, pound for pound, as men? Many questions have been raised about the ability of women and men to perform physical tasks equally well. The issue of sex differences and similarities in performance has considerable significance today as women seek physically demanding careers in police-work, fire-fighting, the military, industry, and athletics. As more women participate in recreational and career opportunities formerly open only to men, knowledge about sex differences in response to physical exertion and training becomes increasingly important. In this paper we describes differences between the sexes in athletic performance.
Most performance differences are due to variations in morphological (structural) or physiological characteristics typical of women and men (Wells, 1991). Nevertheless, variations in these characteristics are often as large or larger within each sex as they are between the sexes. The same is true of physical performance. Thus, when the entire population is considered, there are extensive differences in performance within each sex, and considerable overlap in performance between the sexes.
We will base our examination of performance differences on the most outstanding performances of each sex: those exemplified by World Records in athletic events. We seek to answer such questions as: How large are sex differences in world record performances? Can existing performance differences be explained entirely by biological differences between the sexes? Or, are a large portion of these performance differ-ences attributable to sociocultural factors?
We will analyze sex differences in performance relative to the human energy system. This system allows an extraordinary range of mechanisms for neuromuscular coordination and metabolism. Because of this, the human has a virtually unlimited movement repertoire and is capable of movements requiring large bursts of energy over very brief periods of time, as well as movements requiring low levels of energy production over very long periods of time. We will progress from sports that require very high intensity and explosive quality movements such as jumping and power lifting, through the “energy spectrum” to feats of endurance such as marathon running, ultra-distance triathlon, and open-water distance swimming.
Due to our desire to focus this paper on a reasonable amount of data, our analysis will be limited as follows:
1) for sex differences in high intensity-brief duration, explosive per-formance, we will discuss the high jump, long jump, and various mea-sures of strength (powerlifting),
2) for sex differences in high intensity-short duration performance, we will present data on sprint running (100m, 400m) and swimming (100m),
3) for sex differences in moderate intensity-moderate duration performance, we will discuss middle-distance running (1500m, 5000m, 10,000m), and swimming (1500m), and
4) for differences in low intensity-long duration performance, we will discuss the marathon, the "Ironman Triathlon," and open ocean distance swimming.
Sex Differences in Self-Reported Causes, Symptoms, and Recovery Strategies Associated With Underperformance in Endurance Athletes
Aarón Agudo-Ortega, Rune Kjøsen Talsnes, Hanna Eid, Øyvind Sandbakk, and Guro Strøm Solli
investigate self-reported causes, symptoms, and recovery strategies associated with underperformance in endurance athletes, with a particular emphasis on sex differences. Methods and Materials Participants In total, 177 athletes completed the survey. Of these, 82 (40 females) met the inclusion criteria and
Sex Differences in Perceived Motor Competence After the Children’s Health Activity Motor Program Intervention
Leesi George-Komi, Kara K. Palmer, Stephanie A. Palmer, Michael A. Nunu, and Leah E. Robinson
affecting PMC in young children is the child’s sex. PMC differences between boys and girls mirror sex differences in MC, where boys have higher PMC than girls ( Robinson, 2011 ). While the decline in PMC over time is similar for both boys and girls, boys’ initial higher perceived competence cascades whereby
Sex Differences in Lower Limb Proprioception and Mechanical Function Among Healthy Adults
Xiaoyue Hu, Jingxian Li, and Lin Wang
surface) and some intrinsic (such as age, sex, and injury history) factors are considered as sports injury risk factors ( Murphy, Connolly, & Beynnon, 2003 ). Notably, sex difference, as a type of intrinsic factor of sports injury, may induce different sports injuries ( Murphy et al., 2003 ). Females may
Age and Sex Differences in Fundamental Movement Skills Among a Cohort of Irish School Children
Lisa E. Bolger, Linda A. Bolger, Cian O’ Neill, Edward Coughlan, Wesley O’Brien, Seán Lacey, and Con Burns
, Plotnikoff, Callister, & Lubans, 2015 ), although some studies have reported no sex-related differences within overall FMS performance ( Hardy, King, Farrell, Macniven, & Howlett, 2010 ; Kordi, Nourian, Ghayour, Kordi, & Younesian, 2012 ). Sex differences in FMS proficiency have predominantly been explained
Sex Differences and Association Between Modified Balance Error Scoring System Error and Sway Index Scores in Collegiate, Club Sport, and High School Athletes
Ryan N. Moran and Mason Haller
and biological sex. 5 – 9 While female sex has been associated with worse total number and severity of symptoms 5 , 8 and inversely better cognitive performance than male counterparts, 6 evidence into sex differences on balance remains mixed. When using the mBESS/BESS, errors did not differ between
Relationship Between Hip Frontal Dynamic Joint Stiffness and Frontal and Transverse Plane Hip Kinematics During Gait: Sex Differences
Shogo Takano, Yoshitaka Iwamoto, Junya Ozawa, and Nobuhiro Kito
discrepancy has not been found, differences in lower extremity movement patterns between women and men during weight-bearing activities may contribute to sex differences in the incidence of PFP. 4 With the difference in lower extremity movement patterns between sexes, much attention has been paid to hip
