In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in virtual-reality (VR) applications across a broad range of performance domains. This interest has, in part, been driven by significant advancements in the technology available in terms of hardware, software, and, crucially, computer processing power. These technological advances have seen low-cost mass-market accessibility to 360° video technology (affordable cameras are readily available), the use of VR with game consoles (e.g., PlayStation VR), accessible high-end head-mounted displays (e.g., Occulus Rift, and HTC Vive), and crucially mobile VR through smart phones (e.g., Samsung Gear VR, Google cardboard). This increased accessibility and mobility of VR systems makes them of increasing interest for sport performance, and sport psychology, in particular, for training in strategy, tactics and decision making, and the manipulation of environmental constraints. A relatively recent development in terms of the use of VR in sport has been 360° video, which gives observers a more immersive experience while watching sport or gives fans or other athletes the opportunity to experience sport through the eyes of a particular athlete. Examples include the “wear the rose” system developed in the United Kingdom, which offers an experience as an England Rugby player, and training for quarterbacks (e.g., Minnesota Vikings) in American Football. Another way that VR has been highlighted as having the potential to have an impact in sport is related to skill learning. Several studies in other performance domains, such as medicine, that explored transferability have reported that skills learned in a VR setting can improve performance in arenas, such as the operating room (Ahlberg et al., 2007; Grantcharov et al., 2004; Larsen et al., 2009; Seymour et al., 2002).
The reality, though, is that using VR for skill development in sport has proven to be far less successful, particularly for game play. Miles et al. (2012), in reviewing the literature focused on using VR for skill development in sport, highlighted several current barriers that must be overcome. For example, in training for field games such as American football or soccer, the area of play is huge compared with the effective space in which someone in a VR system can typically move. A play on a field may involve running 25 m, whereas the effective area of tracking in VR is, say, 2 m around a spot where the participant must stand. Using a wand (handheld navigation device) to navigate or even a treadmill may miss critical aspects of the play. Despite the empirical question marks regarding the use of VR for skill development, many sporting organizations have begun to use VR in their training, (e.g., American football, basketball, baseball, ice hockey, and golf). One such example is STRIVR Labs, who claim that VR training can enable athletes to gain further game-play experience without the risk of overtraining or injury (Belch et al., 2017). Other media sources have reported that STRIVER technology can be used to enhance skill learning in sport (Zorowitz, 2017) and enhance visualization skills (Whittle, 2016). However, despite the wide range of sport teams and sport-governing bodies investing in the use of VR in sport, there is very little scientific research to back up its use in this way for many sports.
Another area of activity that has been highlighted as being a ripe for development in the sport and exercise domain is rehabilitation. Indeed, Levin, Weiss, and Keshner (2015) suggested that VR rehabilitation environments are more motivating than conventional rehabilitation, as they can keep individuals engaged in the process due to a more interactive environment.
Applying VR in Sport and Exercise Psychology
There are a number of specific ways that VR could be used to enhance psychological skills and capabilities. These include developing perception-action skills; strategic, tactical, and decision-making training; responding to unexpected events; and enhancing psychological resilience. For example, Craig (2013) made a persuasive case for the use of VR to develop perception-action skills, suggesting that it can offer some clear advantages in developing performer skills. An extension of this line of thought is to use VR to develop tactical decision making. One important consideration with this type of application, though, would be to effectively and differentially meet the needs of both players and coaches. Offering different viewpoints would further maximize the impact of the application. Another potential advantage of VR that has been suggested relating to decision making is to train athletes to notice deceptive movements of opponents by directing attention to specific moves or body parts that signal such intentions (Bideau et al., 2010). VR can also potentially be used to enhance psychological resilience. Stinson and Bowman (2014) investigated the use of VR as a method of inducing anxiety in soccer players in a virtual penalty-defending task. They found that it is possible to induce anxiety in athletes using VR and suggested that VR training could be used to enhance psychological resilience in athletes. However, findings from a similar study involving the use of a VR audience to induce a pressure environment in rowing found no effect of the audience on athletes’ psychological reactions (Wellner et al., 2010).
VR technology has in recent years been applied to a broad range of sports including baseball, basketball (Covaci, Olivier, & Multon, 2015), handball goalkeeping (Bideau et al., 2003; Vignais et al., 2009), rugby union (Brook, Croft, & Mann, 2010), skiing (Solina et al., 2008), and pistol shooting (Argelaguet Sanz et al., 2015), among others. Indeed, in terms of “real world” effectiveness, the handball VR system for goalkeepers proved so successful that it was adopted by a national handball federation for training young national-squad members and for talent identification. Current knowledge and understanding suggest, however, that VR currently has the greatest potential for discrete skill development and perceiving/decision-making applications.
Future Developments
More research and evidence from applied practice are required to further clarify the advantages of using VR and verify that the virtual environment is evoking experiences that are the same as, or at least similar to, the real world. Examples of this evidence base in other domains include the perceptual and motor-demands assessment for VR in rehabilitation (Cairolli et al., 2017) and face validation of a VR simulator for shoulder arthroscopy (Rahm, Germann, Hingsammer, Wieser, & Gerber, 2016). There is also a need for more applied case studies that outline the procedures adopted and reflect on the outcomes obtained using VR in sport psychology–relevant ways. VR has been used in other professions (e.g., medicine) to develop the ability of trainees to respond to unexpected disclosures and client/patient responses. This application of the technology could be used in the training of sport and exercise psychology professionals, as well. Finally, the development of new state-of-the-art equipment including wireless high-quality headsets (e.g., HTC Vive Pro) and haptic suits (e.g., Teslasuit), as well as third-party three-dimensional environments, means that there is a real opportunity to develop far more perceptually realistic VR sporting environments and, as a result, increased potential for this technology to be used by sport and exercise psychologists.
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