Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Essential Papers in Sports and Exercise Physiology

Click name to view affiliation

Jos J. de Koning Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Search for other papers by Jos J. de Koning in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5596-0282 *
and
Carl Foster Department of Exercise and Sports Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, USA

Search for other papers by Carl Foster in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1406-9283
Free access

Purpose: The purpose of this survey was to create a list of essential historical and contemporary readings for undergraduate and graduate students in the field of exercise physiology. Methods: Fifty-two exercise physiologists/sport scientists served as referees, and each nominated ∼25 papers for inclusion in the list. In total, 396 papers were nominated by the referees. This list was then sent back to the referees, with the instructions to nominate the “100 essential papers in sports and exercise physiology.” Results: The referees cast 4722 votes. The 100 papers with the highest number of votes received 51% (2406) of the total number of votes. A total of 37 papers in the list of “100 essential papers” were published >50 years ago, and 63 papers were published since 1973. Conclusions: This list of essential studies will provide a perspective on contemporary studies, the “giant’s shoulders” to enable young scholars to “see further” or to understand where they have “come from.” This compilation is also meant to impress on students that, given the (lack of) technology available in the past, some of the early science required enormous intuitive leaps on the part of historical scientists.

The term “standing on the shoulders of giants” is a metaphor conveying that, in science, we make progress by building on previous discoveries. The concept dates from the 12th century, attributed to Bernard of Chartres, and is abundantly evident in the early history of science. It is most specifically remembered from a 1675 letter of Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, “if I have seen further than others, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” The expression is widely understood to mean that scientific knowledge is a summation of one’s current work, applied to an existing body of knowledge, even if part of that body of knowledge is no longer specifically correct. From the standpoint of training young scholars, we have taken this to mean that the grounding of students depends upon them learning, understanding, and integrating the existing body of knowledge about any particular topic (eg, what do we know, what do we need to know, and following observation or experiment, what do we now know).

In early 2012, during the course of a walk around the lake in Langeraar (the Netherlands), we realized that our mutual experience was that many students were generally ill-prepared in terms of their understanding of the “deep history” in exercise physiology. While they seemed to do well with contemporary literature related to current research projects, indeed most journals were encouraging use of recent references, we found ourselves concerned that their understanding of less recent literature was deficient, in a way that made understanding the concept that the essence of scientific inquiry was the “self-correcting” nature of science, that scientific truth is transient, and that there will always be a better explanation for how things work. Accordingly, we asked ourselves whether we could come up with a list of essential readings to provide perspective to contemporary studies and, in so doing, provide the “giant’s shoulders” that allows young scholars to “see further.”

Methods

As with all questions that one asks, there is an evolutionary process to reach an approach to answering questions. First, we derived a list of about a dozen folks with whom we were corresponding in our role as Editor(s) of the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (IJSPP). We wrote to this group and asked them to nominate 10 to 20 papers that might fit into a list, nominally 100 papers, that would be essential for (graduate) students in exercise physiology to have read and be familiar with. We further asked them to particularly consider what might be considered “early papers” beginning in the time frame of the Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine by August Krogh (1920) and AV Hill (1922; ∼100 y ago), through 1973, and “contemporary” papers (post-1973). Our test group of “referees” returned an interesting list, with considerable overlap, suggesting to us that there was, indeed, the possibility of building a list of papers that might represent the “giant’s shoulders.” Alas, for all the promise of the concept, we had classes to teach, thesis projects to direct, and administrative work to do, and the 100 Essential Papers project was put on the shelf, discussed frequently, but not completed.

In 2021, one of us retired from teaching, which created time to resume work on the project. After some discussion, we came up with an approach of asking a substantial number of “experts” for their opinion on what represented an essential paper. We chose this approach rather than relying on citation lists, as we felt that the informed opinion of our experts was more valuable than strictly quantitative measures. We created a list of 52 exercise physiology or sport scientists to serve as referees (including 6 past-presidents of the American College of Sports Medicine [ACSM], all 5 Editors of IJSPP, all current Associate Editors of IJSPP, 2 Editors of Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise [MSSE], and 1 Editor of the European Journal of Sport Science). We repeated the early process, asking them to nominate ∼25 papers for inclusion in the list, with at least 25% of the nominations coming from “early” papers. Because of our unique history as Editors of IJSPP (C. Foster = 2010–2013, J.J. de Koning = 2018–2021), the list of referees is somewhat IJSPP-centric (sport-related applied physiology), although we intentionally included physiologists who had interests broader than the niche of IJSPP. We did our best to have a diverse list of referees relative to research specialty, geography, and gender. Any paper nominated, even 1 time, was included in the list of nominated papers. This list was then sent back to the referees, with the instructions to identify the “100 most essential papers,” but not to attempt to rank order them, just include or exclude from the “100.” This was done because we wanted to build a list that we thought students should read widely. We specifically did not want to identify a single “winning” paper, our goal was to create an educational tool, not have a contest where the “election might be stolen.” Again, the referees were asked to select at least 25% of the papers from the “early” period. On the basis of the referees’ votes, the papers were then categorized as being included or excluded from the list of “100 essential papers.”

The referees who nominated papers and/or voted were: Barbara Ainsworth, James Anholm, Renato Barroso, Ralph Beneke, Daniel Bok, Daniel Boullosa, Martin Buchheit, Arturo Casado, Karim Chamari, Stephen Cheung, Cristina Cortis, Aaron Coutts, Hein Daanen, Brian Dawson, Larry Durstine, Marc Francaux, Bruce Gladden, Shona Halson, Thomas Haugen, Florentina Hettinga, Oliver Hue, Blair Johnson, Andrew Jones, Michael Joyner, Larry Kenney, Don Kirkendall, Rob Lamberts, Alejandro Lucia, Mike McGuigan, Romain Meeusen, Inigo Mujika, Kathy Myberg, Fabio Nakamura, Sophia Nimphius, Dionne Noordhof, Maria Francesca Piacentini, David Pyne, Bart Roelands, Øyvind Sandbakk, Stephen Seiler, James Skinner, Sabrina Skorski-Forster, Alan St Clair Gibson, Trent Stellingwerff, Oscar Suman, Espen Tønnesson, Christian Thiel, Alex Urhausen, Lutz Vogt, and Randy Wilber. We thank them, particularly as the process took longer than we had expected.

Results

From the combined 2012 and 2022 surveys, 396 papers were nominated by the experts. From these nominated papers, 298 were published after 1973. The list of nominated papers can be found in the Supplementary Material (available online). We chose to cut off the list in 2018, first because 1923, 1973, and 2018 are more or less 50-year segments and second because it is hard to evaluate the long-term value of more recent papers and 5 years (2018–2023) seemed to be a reasonable cut point.

The referees cast 4722 votes. The 100 papers with the highest number of votes received 51% (2406) of the total number of votes. A total of 37 papers in the list of “100 essential papers” were published >50 years ago. The “100 essential papers” are presented below. It is important to understand, however, that there were ∼200 papers which “could have” made the list. Indeed, the biggest discussions and arguments that we had were whether to make a bigger list (ultimately, we decided to list only 100) or to include some of what we thought were real classics (beyond the votes of the referees) that did not get the votes, or to list only one of several vote getting papers that told the same story. Inevitably, as the makers of the list, we were overnominated and overvoted, which we did try to correct. Also, with very few exceptions, the list includes too little about health and exercise or about clinical physiology, the votes were IJSPP centric, as was our selection of referees. In the end, the list is our best list, love it or hate it, it is ours. We hope you and your students find it useful.

100 Essential Papers

The purpose of our survey was to create “giant’s shoulders” for (graduate) students to “stand on,” as they familiarize themselves with the field of sports and exercise physiology. The availability of scientific literature is immense and accelerating. Navigating this information is difficult, even with the availability of sophisticated search engines. This list, drawn up with the help of our “referees,” can give a head start in mastering the field. It was our intention to include a certain percentage of older manuscripts. Many of the older manuscripts selected laid the foundations for theories and concepts that are still relevant today (eg, lactate metabolism). Understandings have changed, often with the help of better technology and research methods, but a deeper understanding is advanced when the work of the originators of a concept is known. From our perspective, science is an evolutionary process and the search for the ultimate truth continues indefinitely, as science is self-correcting.

The list of “100” has a number of limitations. First, the list of 100 essential papers would have looked different if 50 different experts (and 2 different authors) had been involved in the nomination and voting process. The experts were mainly centered around IJSPP, which resulted in a bias toward sports physiology and performance. We encourage similar surveys in other areas of sport science to help students navigate the literature. In very “mature” journals such as Journal of Applied Physiology or MSSE, it might even be possible to make a list of 100 essential papers from a single journal. Second, the selection process was not based on a scientific analysis of bibliometric data, which resulted in some well-cited authors not being included in the list. This should not be seen as a disqualification, but rather as an effect of the bias discussed above. Third, the expert panel was asked to nominate papers published since Krogh (1920) and Hill (1922) were awarded the Nobel Prize. We recognize that important discoveries were made before the 20th century, this event was just a convenient landmark for us. Last, the nomination process took place over a period of 10 years. All the nominations were made in 2012 or 2022 and the votes in 2022, so this is not expected to have any effect on the scoring.

Rather than provide a historical chronology of the field of sports and exercise physiology, we have chosen to group the 100 papers into a number of subcategories: muscle physiology,15 muscular energetics/metabolism,620 aerobic work/VO2max,2137 anaerobic work,3842 fatigue/perception of effort,4347 endurance training,4858 resistance training,5961 high-intensity training,62,63 altitude,6467 monitoring training/overtraining,6872 periodization/tapering,7375 thermophysiology,76,77 performance,7896 and physical activity and health.97100

Practical Application and Conclusions

This list of 100 essential readings will provide a perspective on contemporary studies and the “giant’s shoulders” to enable young scholars to “see further,” or to understand where they have “come from.” Also, it is intended to help young scholars recognize that there is very little “bad science,” it is just that more contemporary science has “self-corrected” by virtue of either better observations (technology) or better experimental designs, data analysis, and/or interpretations. It is also meant to impress on students that, given the (lack of) technology available in the past, some of the early science required enormous intuitive leaps on the part of historical scientists. That is why these folks (Krogh, Hill, Dill, di Prampero, Margaria, Robinson, Astrand, Saltin, etc) have such enormous reputations. They did something fundamentally good and created “shoulders” for all of us to stand on.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank the referees that nominated papers and/or voted for the list.

100 Essential Papers in Sport and Exercise Physiology

Muscle Physiology

Muscular Energetics/Metabolism

Aerobic Work/VO2max

Anaerobic Work

Fatigue/Perception of Effort

Endurance Training

Resistance Training

High-Intensity Training

Altitude

Monitoring Training/Overtraining

Periodization/Tapering

Thermophysiology

Performance

Physical Activity and Health

  • 1.

    Krogh A. The number and distribution of capillaries in muscles with calculations of the oxygen pressure head necessary for supplying the tissue. J Physiol. 1919;52(6):409415. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Hill AV. The mechanism of muscular contraction. Physiol Rev. 1922;2(2):310341. doi:

  • 3.

    Huxley AF, Niedergerke R. Structural changes in muscle during contraction; interference microscopy of living muscle fibres. Nature. 1954;173(4412):971973. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 4.

    Costill DL, Fink WJ, Pollock ML. Muscle fiber composition and enzyme activities of elite distance runners. Med Sci Sports. 1976;8(2):96100.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    Thorstensson A, Karlsson J. Fatiguability and fibre composition of human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand. 1976;98(3):318322. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 6.

    Krogh A, Lindhard J. The relative value of fat and carbohydrate as sources of muscular energy: with appendices on the correlation between standard metabolism and the respiratory quotient during rest and work. Biochem J. 1920;14(3–4):290363. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7.

    Hill AV, Lupton H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid, and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Quart J Med. 1923;16(62):135171. doi:

  • 8.

    Dill DB, Edwards HT, Talbott JH. Studies in muscular activity: VII. factors limiting the capacity for work. J Physiol. 1932;77(1):4962. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9.

    Margaria R, Edwards HT, Dill DB. The possible mechanisms of contracting and paying the oxygen debt and the role of lactic acid in muscular contraction. Am J Physiol. 1933;106(3):689715. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 10.

    Bergström J, Hultman E. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: an enhancing factor localized to the muscle cells in man. Nature. 1966;210(5033):309310. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 11.

    Bergström J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand. 1967;71(2):140150. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Muscle glycogen during prolonged severe exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1967;71(2):129139. doi:

  • 13.

    Karlsson J, Saltin B. Lactate, ATP, and CP in working muscles during exhaustive exercise in man. J Appl Physiol. 1970;29(5):596602. doi:

  • 14.

    Krebs HA. The history of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Perspect Biol Med. 1970;14(1):154170. doi:

  • 15.

    Karlsson J, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen, and endurance performance. J Appl Physiol. 1971;31(2):203206. doi:

  • 16.

    Saltin B. Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. Med Sci Sports. 1973;5(3):137146.

  • 17.

    Essén B, Jansson E, Henriksson J, Taylor AW, Saltin B. Metabolic characteristics of fibre types in human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand. 1975;95(2):153165. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 18.

    di Prampero PE. Energetics of muscular exercise. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol. 1981;89:143222. doi:

  • 19.

    Gladden LB. 200th anniversary of lactate research in muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2008;36(3):109115. doi:

  • 20.

    Jones AM, Wilkerson DP, DiMenna F, Fulford J, Poole DC. Muscle metabolic responses to exercise above and below the “critical power” assessed using 31P-MRS. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;294(2):R585R593. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Taylor HL, Buskirk E, Henschel A. Maximal oxygen intake as an objective measure of cardio-respiratory performance. J Appl Physiol. 1955;8(1):7380. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 22.

    Mitchell JH, Sproule BJ, Chapman CB. The physiological meaning of the maximal oxygen intake test. J Clin Invest. 1958;37(4):538547. doi:

  • 23.

    Astrand PO, Saltin B. Maximal oxygen uptake and heart rate in various types of muscular activity. J Appl Physiol. 1961;16:977981. doi:

  • 24.

    Astrand PO, Cuddy TE, Saltin B, Stenberg J. Cardiac output during submaximal and maximal work. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:268274. doi:

  • 25.

    Saltin B, Stenberg J. Circulatory response to prolonged severe exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:833838. doi:

  • 26.

    Holloszy JO. Biochemical adaptations in muscle. Effects of exercise on mitochondrial oxygen uptake and respiratory enzyme activity in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem. 1967;242(9):22782282.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Saltin B, Astrand PO. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1967;23(3):353358. doi:

  • 28.

    Costill DL, Bowers R, Branam G, Sparks K. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J Appl Physiol. 1971;31(6):834838. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 29.

    Whipp BJ, Wasserman K. Oxygen uptake kinetics for various intensities of constant-load work. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33(3):351356. doi:

  • 30.

    Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med Sci Sports. 1973;5(4):248252.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    Wasserman K, Whipp BJ, Koyl SN, Beaver WL. Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1973;35(2):236243. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    Brooks GA. Anaerobic threshold: review of the concept and directions for future research. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;17(1):2234.

  • 33.

    Howley ET, Bassett DR, Welch HG. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and commentary. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(9):12921301.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    Dempsey JA, Wagner PD. Exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1999;87(6):19972006. doi:

  • 35.

    Wagner PD. New ideas on limitations to VO2max. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2000;28(1):1014.

  • 36.

    Levine BD. VO2max: what do we know, and what do we still need to know? J Physiol. 2008;586(1):2534. doi:

  • 37.

    Poole DC, Barstow TJ, McDonough P, Jones AM. Control of oxygen uptake during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(3):462474. doi:

  • 38.

    Komi PV, Rusko H, Vos J, Vihko V. Anaerobic performance capacity in athletes. Acta Physiol Scand. 1977;100(1):107114. doi:

  • 39.

    Bar-Or O, Dotan R, Inbar O, Rothstein A, Karlsson J, Tesch P. Anaerobic capacity and muscle fiber type distribution in man. Int J Sports Med. 1980;1(2):8285. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Brooks GA. The lactate shuttle during exercise and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(3):360368. doi:

  • 41.

    Medbø JI, Mohn AC, Tabata I, Bahr R, Vaage O, Sejersted OM. Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J Appl Physiol. 1988;64(1):5060. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Billat VL, Sirvent P, Py G, Koralsztein JP, Mercier J. The concept of maximal lactate steady state: a bridge between biochemistry, physiology and sport science. Sports Med. 2003;33(6):407426. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 43.

    Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(5):377381.

  • 44.

    Borg G, Hassmén P, Lagerström M. Perceived exertion related to heart rate and blood lactate during arm and leg exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1987;56(6):679685. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 45.

    Enoka RM, Stuart DG. Neurobiology of muscle fatigue. J Appl Physiol. 1992;72(5):16311648. doi:

  • 46.

    Fitts RH. Cellular mechanisms of muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev. 1994;74(1):4994. doi:

  • 47.

    Gollnick PD, Piehl K, Saltin B. Selective glycogen depletion pattern in human muscle fibres after exercise of varying intensity and at varying pedalling rates. J Physiol. 1974;241(1):4557. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Karvonen MJ, Kentala E, Mustala O. The effects of training on heart rate; a longitudinal study. Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn. 1957;35(3):307315.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 49.

    Ekblom B, Astrand PO, Saltin B, Stenberg J, Wallström B. Effect of training on circulatory response to exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1968;24(4):518528. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Saltin B, Blomqvist G, Mitchell JH, Johnson RL, Wildenthal K, Chapman CB. Response to exercise after bed rest and after training. Circulation. 1968;38(suppl 5):7178.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 51.

    Gollnick PD, Armstrong RB, Saltin B, Saubert CW, Sembrowich WL, Shepherd RE. Effect of training on enzyme activity and fiber composition of human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol. 1973;34(1):107111. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 52.

    Banister EW. A systems model of training for athletic performance. Aust J Sports Med. 1975;7(3):5761.

  • 53.

    Saltin B, Nazar K, Costill DL, et al. The nature of the training response; peripheral and central adaptations of one-legged exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1976;96(3):289305. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 54.

    Donovan CM, Brooks GA. Endurance training affects lactate clearance, not lactate production. Am J Physiol. 1983;244(1):E83E92. doi:

  • 55.

    Holloszy JO, Coyle EF. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. J Appl Physiol. 1984;56(4):831838. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 56.

    Coyle EF, Martin WH, Sinacore DR, Joyner MJ, Hagberg JM, Holloszy JO. Time course of loss of adaptations after stopping prolonged intense endurance training. J Appl Physiol. 1984;57(6):18571864. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 57.

    Bouchard C, An P, Rice T, et al. Familial aggregation of VO2max response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE family study. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(3):10031008. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Seiler S. What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2010;5(3):276291. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Häkkinen K. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations during strength and power training. A review. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989;29(1):926.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 60.

    American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand. progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(3):687708. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 61.

    Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Fundamentals of resistance training: progression and exercise prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(4):674688. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 62.

    Laursen PB, Jenkins DG. The scientific basis for high-intensity interval training: optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports Med. 2002;32(1):5373. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 63.

    Gibala MJ, Little JP, van Essen M, et al. Short-term sprint interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise performance. J Physiol. 2006;575(Pt 3):901911. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 64.

    West JB, Lahiri S, Gill MB, Milledge JS, Pugh LG, Ward MP. Arterial oxygen saturation during exercise at high altitude. J Appl Physiol. 1962;17:617621. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 65.

    Levine BD, Stray-Gundersen J. “Living high-training low”: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1997;83(1):102112. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 66.

    Stray-Gundersen J, Chapman RF, Levine BD. “Living high-training low” altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(3):11131120. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 67.

    Lundby C, Millet GP, Calbet JA, Bärtsch P, Subudhi AW. Does “altitude training” increase exercise performance in elite athletes? Br J Sports Med. 2012;46(11):792795. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 68.

    Bruin G, Kuipers H, Keizer HA, Vander Vusse GJ. Adaptation and overtraining in horses subjected to increasing training loads. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(5):19081913. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 69.

    Foster C. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30(7):11641168. doi:

  • 70.

    Foster C, Florhaug JA, Franklin J, et al. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res. 2001;15(1):109115.

  • 71.

    Meeusen R, Duclos M, Foster C, et al. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the overtraining syndrome: joint consensus statement of the European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(1):186205. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 72.

    Kellmann M, Bertollo M, Bosquet L, et al. Recovery and performance in sport: consensus statement. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13(2):240245. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 73.

    Bosquet L, Montpetit J, Arvisais D, Mujika I. Effects of tapering on performance: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(8):13581365. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 74.

    Pyne DB, Mujika I, Reilly T. Peaking for optimal performance: research limitations and future directions. J Sports Sci. 2009;27(3):195202. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 75.

    Mujika I, Halson S, Burke LM, Balagué G, Farrow D. An integrated, multifactorial approach to periodization for optimal performance in individual and team sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13(5):538561. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 76.

    Saltin B, Hermansen L. Esophageal, rectal, and muscle temperature during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1966;21(6):17571762. doi:

  • 77.

    Rowell LB. Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev. 1974;54(1):75159. doi:

  • 78.

    Hill AV. The physiological basis of athletic records. Nature. 1925;116(2919):544548. doi:

  • 79.

    Robinson S, Edwards HT, Dill DB. New records in human power. Science. 1937;85(2208):409410. doi:

  • 80.

    Margaria R, Cerretelli P, Aghemo P, Sassi G. Energy cost of running. J Appl Physiol. 1963;18:367370. doi:

  • 81.

    Monod H, Scherrer J. The work capacity of a synergic muscular group. Ergonomics. 1965;8(3):329338. doi:

  • 82.

    Pugh LG. The influence of wind resistance in running and walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against horizontal or vertical forces. J Physiol. 1971;213(2):255276. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 83.

    Ekblom B, Goldbarg AN, Gullbring B. Response to exercise after blood loss and reinfusion. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33(2):175180. doi:

  • 84.

    di Prampero PE, Atchou G, Brückner JC, Moia C. The energetics of endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1986;55(3):259266. doi:

  • 85.

    Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hopper MK, Walters TJ. Determinants of endurance in well-trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1988;64(6):26222630. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 86.

    Bouchard C, Chagnon M, Thibault MC, et al. Muscle genetic variants and relationship with performance and trainability. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21(1):7177. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 87.

    van Ingen Schenau GJ, de Koning JJ, de Groot G. A simulation of speed skating performances based on a power equation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22(5):718728. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 88.

    Joyner MJ. Modeling: optimal marathon performance on the basis of physiological factors. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1991;70(2):683687. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 89.

    Daniels J, Daniels N. Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24(4):483489.

  • 90.

    Coyle EF. Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance. J Sci Med Sport. 1999;2(3):181189. doi:

  • 91.

    Bassett DR, Howley ET. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(1):7084. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 92.

    Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A, Lambert EV. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39(2):120124. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 93.

    Joyner MJ, Coyle EF. Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):3544. doi:

  • 94.

    Joyner MJ, Ruiz JR, Lucia A. The two-hour marathon: who and when? J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 2011;110(1):275277. doi:

  • 95.

    Vanhatalo A, Jones AM, Burnley M. Application of critical power in sport. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2011;6(1):128136. doi:

  • 96.

    de Koning JJ, Foster C, Bakkum A, et al. Regulation of pacing strategy during athletic competition. PloS One. 2011;6(1):e15863. doi:

  • 97.

    Paffenbarger RS, Wing AL, Hyde RT. Physical activity as an index of heart attack risk in college alumni. Am J Epidemiol. 1978;108(3):161175. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 98.

    Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. a prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA. 1989;262(17):23952401. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 99.

    Pate RR, Pratt M, Blair SN, et al. Physical activity and public health. a recommendation from the centers for disease control and prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. JAMA. 1995;273(5):402407. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 100.

    Booth FW, Chakravarthy MV, Gordon SE, Spangenburg EE. Waging war on physical inactivity: using modern molecular ammunition against an ancient enemy. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 2002;93(1):330. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

Supplementary Materials

  • Collapse
  • Expand
  • 1.

    Krogh A. The number and distribution of capillaries in muscles with calculations of the oxygen pressure head necessary for supplying the tissue. J Physiol. 1919;52(6):409415. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Hill AV. The mechanism of muscular contraction. Physiol Rev. 1922;2(2):310341. doi:

  • 3.

    Huxley AF, Niedergerke R. Structural changes in muscle during contraction; interference microscopy of living muscle fibres. Nature. 1954;173(4412):971973. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 4.

    Costill DL, Fink WJ, Pollock ML. Muscle fiber composition and enzyme activities of elite distance runners. Med Sci Sports. 1976;8(2):96100.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    Thorstensson A, Karlsson J. Fatiguability and fibre composition of human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand. 1976;98(3):318322. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 6.

    Krogh A, Lindhard J. The relative value of fat and carbohydrate as sources of muscular energy: with appendices on the correlation between standard metabolism and the respiratory quotient during rest and work. Biochem J. 1920;14(3–4):290363. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7.

    Hill AV, Lupton H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid, and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Quart J Med. 1923;16(62):135171. doi:

  • 8.

    Dill DB, Edwards HT, Talbott JH. Studies in muscular activity: VII. factors limiting the capacity for work. J Physiol. 1932;77(1):4962. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9.

    Margaria R, Edwards HT, Dill DB. The possible mechanisms of contracting and paying the oxygen debt and the role of lactic acid in muscular contraction. Am J Physiol. 1933;106(3):689715. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 10.

    Bergström J, Hultman E. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: an enhancing factor localized to the muscle cells in man. Nature. 1966;210(5033):309310. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 11.

    Bergström J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand. 1967;71(2):140150. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Muscle glycogen during prolonged severe exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1967;71(2):129139. doi:

  • 13.

    Karlsson J, Saltin B. Lactate, ATP, and CP in working muscles during exhaustive exercise in man. J Appl Physiol. 1970;29(5):596602. doi:

  • 14.

    Krebs HA. The history of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Perspect Biol Med. 1970;14(1):154170. doi:

  • 15.

    Karlsson J, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen, and endurance performance. J Appl Physiol. 1971;31(2):203206. doi:

  • 16.

    Saltin B. Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. Med Sci Sports. 1973;5(3):137146.

  • 17.

    Essén B, Jansson E, Henriksson J, Taylor AW, Saltin B. Metabolic characteristics of fibre types in human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand. 1975;95(2):153165. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 18.

    di Prampero PE. Energetics of muscular exercise. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol. 1981;89:143222. doi:

  • 19.

    Gladden LB. 200th anniversary of lactate research in muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2008;36(3):109115. doi:

  • 20.

    Jones AM, Wilkerson DP, DiMenna F, Fulford J, Poole DC. Muscle metabolic responses to exercise above and below the “critical power” assessed using 31P-MRS. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;294(2):R585R593. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Taylor HL, Buskirk E, Henschel A. Maximal oxygen intake as an objective measure of cardio-respiratory performance. J Appl Physiol. 1955;8(1):7380. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 22.

    Mitchell JH, Sproule BJ, Chapman CB. The physiological meaning of the maximal oxygen intake test. J Clin Invest. 1958;37(4):538547. doi:

  • 23.

    Astrand PO, Saltin B. Maximal oxygen uptake and heart rate in various types of muscular activity. J Appl Physiol. 1961;16:977981. doi:

  • 24.

    Astrand PO, Cuddy TE, Saltin B, Stenberg J. Cardiac output during submaximal and maximal work. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:268274. doi:

  • 25.

    Saltin B, Stenberg J. Circulatory response to prolonged severe exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:833838. doi:

  • 26.

    Holloszy JO. Biochemical adaptations in muscle. Effects of exercise on mitochondrial oxygen uptake and respiratory enzyme activity in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem. 1967;242(9):22782282.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Saltin B, Astrand PO. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1967;23(3):353358. doi:

  • 28.

    Costill DL, Bowers R, Branam G, Sparks K. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J Appl Physiol. 1971;31(6):834838. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 29.

    Whipp BJ, Wasserman K. Oxygen uptake kinetics for various intensities of constant-load work. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33(3):351356. doi:

  • 30.

    Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med Sci Sports. 1973;5(4):248252.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    Wasserman K, Whipp BJ, Koyl SN, Beaver WL. Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1973;35(2):236243. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    Brooks GA. Anaerobic threshold: review of the concept and directions for future research. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;17(1):2234.

  • 33.

    Howley ET, Bassett DR, Welch HG. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and commentary. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(9):12921301.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    Dempsey JA, Wagner PD. Exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1999;87(6):19972006. doi:

  • 35.

    Wagner PD. New ideas on limitations to VO2max. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2000;28(1):1014.

  • 36.

    Levine BD. VO2max: what do we know, and what do we still need to know? J Physiol. 2008;586(1):2534. doi:

  • 37.

    Poole DC, Barstow TJ, McDonough P, Jones AM. Control of oxygen uptake during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(3):462474. doi:

  • 38.

    Komi PV, Rusko H, Vos J, Vihko V. Anaerobic performance capacity in athletes. Acta Physiol Scand. 1977;100(1):107114. doi:

  • 39.

    Bar-Or O, Dotan R, Inbar O, Rothstein A, Karlsson J, Tesch P. Anaerobic capacity and muscle fiber type distribution in man. Int J Sports Med. 1980;1(2):8285. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Brooks GA. The lactate shuttle during exercise and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(3):360368. doi:

  • 41.

    Medbø JI, Mohn AC, Tabata I, Bahr R, Vaage O, Sejersted OM. Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J Appl Physiol. 1988;64(1):5060. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Billat VL, Sirvent P, Py G, Koralsztein JP, Mercier J. The concept of maximal lactate steady state: a bridge between biochemistry, physiology and sport science. Sports Med. 2003;33(6):407426. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 43.

    Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14(5):377381.

  • 44.

    Borg G, Hassmén P, Lagerström M. Perceived exertion related to heart rate and blood lactate during arm and leg exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1987;56(6):679685. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 45.

    Enoka RM, Stuart DG. Neurobiology of muscle fatigue. J Appl Physiol. 1992;72(5):16311648. doi:

  • 46.

    Fitts RH. Cellular mechanisms of muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev. 1994;74(1):4994. doi:

  • 47.

    Gollnick PD, Piehl K, Saltin B. Selective glycogen depletion pattern in human muscle fibres after exercise of varying intensity and at varying pedalling rates. J Physiol. 1974;241(1):4557. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Karvonen MJ, Kentala E, Mustala O. The effects of training on heart rate; a longitudinal study. Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn. 1957;35(3):307315.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 49.

    Ekblom B, Astrand PO, Saltin B, Stenberg J, Wallström B. Effect of training on circulatory response to exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1968;24(4):518528. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Saltin B, Blomqvist G, Mitchell JH, Johnson RL, Wildenthal K, Chapman CB. Response to exercise after bed rest and after training. Circulation. 1968;38(suppl 5):7178.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 51.

    Gollnick PD, Armstrong RB, Saltin B, Saubert CW, Sembrowich WL, Shepherd RE. Effect of training on enzyme activity and fiber composition of human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol. 1973;34(1):107111. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 52.

    Banister EW. A systems model of training for athletic performance. Aust J Sports Med. 1975;7(3):5761.

  • 53.

    Saltin B, Nazar K, Costill DL, et al. The nature of the training response; peripheral and central adaptations of one-legged exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1976;96(3):289305. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 54.

    Donovan CM, Brooks GA. Endurance training affects lactate clearance, not lactate production. Am J Physiol. 1983;244(1):E83E92. doi:

  • 55.

    Holloszy JO, Coyle EF. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. J Appl Physiol. 1984;56(4):831838. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 56.

    Coyle EF, Martin WH, Sinacore DR, Joyner MJ, Hagberg JM, Holloszy JO. Time course of loss of adaptations after stopping prolonged intense endurance training. J Appl Physiol. 1984;57(6):18571864. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 57.

    Bouchard C, An P, Rice T, et al. Familial aggregation of VO2max response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE family study. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(3):10031008. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Seiler S. What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2010;5(3):276291. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Häkkinen K. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations during strength and power training. A review. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1989;29(1):926.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 60.

    American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand. progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(3):687708. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 61.

    Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Fundamentals of resistance training: progression and exercise prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(4):674688. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 62.

    Laursen PB, Jenkins DG. The scientific basis for high-intensity interval training: optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athletes. Sports Med. 2002;32(1):5373. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 63.

    Gibala MJ, Little JP, van Essen M, et al. Short-term sprint interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise performance. J Physiol. 2006;575(Pt 3):901911. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 64.

    West JB, Lahiri S, Gill MB, Milledge JS, Pugh LG, Ward MP. Arterial oxygen saturation during exercise at high altitude. J Appl Physiol. 1962;17:617621. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 65.

    Levine BD, Stray-Gundersen J. “Living high-training low”: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1997;83(1):102112. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 66.

    Stray-Gundersen J, Chapman RF, Levine BD. “Living high-training low” altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(3):11131120. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 67.

    Lundby C, Millet GP, Calbet JA, Bärtsch P, Subudhi AW. Does “altitude training” increase exercise performance in elite athletes? Br J Sports Med. 2012;46(11):792795. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 68.

    Bruin G, Kuipers H, Keizer HA, Vander Vusse GJ. Adaptation and overtraining in horses subjected to increasing training loads. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(5):19081913. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 69.

    Foster C. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to overtraining syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30(7):11641168. doi:

  • 70.

    Foster C, Florhaug JA, Franklin J, et al. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res. 2001;15(1):109115.

  • 71.

    Meeusen R, Duclos M, Foster C, et al. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the overtraining syndrome: joint consensus statement of the European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(1):186205. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 72.

    Kellmann M, Bertollo M, Bosquet L, et al. Recovery and performance in sport: consensus statement. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13(2):240245. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 73.

    Bosquet L, Montpetit J, Arvisais D, Mujika I. Effects of tapering on performance: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(8):13581365. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 74.

    Pyne DB, Mujika I, Reilly T. Peaking for optimal performance: research limitations and future directions. J Sports Sci. 2009;27(3):195202. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 75.

    Mujika I, Halson S, Burke LM, Balagué G, Farrow D. An integrated, multifactorial approach to periodization for optimal performance in individual and team sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13(5):538561. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 76.

    Saltin B, Hermansen L. Esophageal, rectal, and muscle temperature during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1966;21(6):17571762. doi:

  • 77.

    Rowell LB. Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev. 1974;54(1):75159. doi:

  • 78.

    Hill AV. The physiological basis of athletic records. Nature. 1925;116(2919):544548. doi:

  • 79.

    Robinson S, Edwards HT, Dill DB. New records in human power. Science. 1937;85(2208):409410. doi:

  • 80.

    Margaria R, Cerretelli P, Aghemo P, Sassi G. Energy cost of running. J Appl Physiol. 1963;18:367370. doi:

  • 81.

    Monod H, Scherrer J. The work capacity of a synergic muscular group. Ergonomics. 1965;8(3):329338. doi:

  • 82.

    Pugh LG. The influence of wind resistance in running and walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against horizontal or vertical forces. J Physiol. 1971;213(2):255276. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 83.

    Ekblom B, Goldbarg AN, Gullbring B. Response to exercise after blood loss and reinfusion. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33(2):175180. doi:

  • 84.

    di Prampero PE, Atchou G, Brückner JC, Moia C. The energetics of endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1986;55(3):259266. doi:

  • 85.

    Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hopper MK, Walters TJ. Determinants of endurance in well-trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1988;64(6):26222630. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 86.

    Bouchard C, Chagnon M, Thibault MC, et al. Muscle genetic variants and relationship with performance and trainability. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21(1):7177. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 87.

    van Ingen Schenau GJ, de Koning JJ, de Groot G. A simulation of speed skating performances based on a power equation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22(5):718728. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 88.

    Joyner MJ. Modeling: optimal marathon performance on the basis of physiological factors. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 1991;70(2):683687. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 89.

    Daniels J, Daniels N. Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24(4):483489.

  • 90.

    Coyle EF. Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance. J Sci Med Sport. 1999;2(3):181189. doi:

  • 91.

    Bassett DR, Howley ET. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(1):7084. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 92.

    Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A, Lambert EV. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39(2):120124. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 93.

    Joyner MJ, Coyle EF. Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):3544. doi:

  • 94.

    Joyner MJ, Ruiz JR, Lucia A. The two-hour marathon: who and when? J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 2011;110(1):275277. doi:

  • 95.

    Vanhatalo A, Jones AM, Burnley M. Application of critical power in sport. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2011;6(1):128136. doi:

  • 96.

    de Koning JJ, Foster C, Bakkum A, et al. Regulation of pacing strategy during athletic competition. PloS One. 2011;6(1):e15863. doi:

  • 97.

    Paffenbarger RS, Wing AL, Hyde RT. Physical activity as an index of heart attack risk in college alumni. Am J Epidemiol. 1978;108(3):161175. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 98.

    Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. a prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA. 1989;262(17):23952401. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 99.

    Pate RR, Pratt M, Blair SN, et al. Physical activity and public health. a recommendation from the centers for disease control and prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. JAMA. 1995;273(5):402407. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 100.

    Booth FW, Chakravarthy MV, Gordon SE, Spangenburg EE. Waging war on physical inactivity: using modern molecular ammunition against an ancient enemy. J Appl Physiol Bethesda Md 1985. 2002;93(1):330. doi:

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 16880 16880 872
PDF Downloads 15778 15778 367