Scholars and practitioners from a myriad of fields strive to understand the so-called mind–body connection, which has long been thought to involve complex “many-to-many relations” (Cacioppo & Tassinary, 1990). To this extent, extant research in neuropsychology has shown that changes in body structure (e.g., lesion brain studies) influence cognitive, affective, and behavioral functioning (see Vaidya et al., 2019). In turn, changes in cognitive-affective-behavioral states and patterns can also influence and help to shape and reshape body structure, for example, neuroplasticity and physical adaptations (Bigliassi & Filho, 2022). Indeed, “mind to body” (e.g., cognitive reframing) as well as “body to mind” (e.g., autogenic training) interventions have been shown to influence psychobiosocial functioning in general and the performance and learning of motor skills in particular (Pineschi & Di Pietro, 2013). For instance, optimal (e.g., flow and in-the-zone states) and suboptimal (e.g., choking) performance experiences are often accompanied by changes in central and peripheral physiological markers (Cheron et al., 2016; Filho et al., 2015, 2021).
It is also important to note that psychophysiological methods have been developed to increase the reliability of assessments in the field (Tenenbaum & Filho, 2015). In theory, scholars and practitioners aim to obtain measurements with the least amount of error possible, that is, “error-free measurement” (Tenenbaum & Filho, 2018). While error-free measurement is not possible to date, the emergence of portable and relatively affordable technologies has contributed to the advancement of more reliable evidence-based interventions (Park et al., 2015; Tenenbaum & Filho, 2018). Today, electroencephalography, functional near-infrared spectroscopy, heart rate monitors, and biofeedback (BFB) systems are becoming more accessible. As a result, we expect to see a growing number of scholars and practitioners using psychophysiological approaches to advance the field. It is within this background that this special issue on sport and exercise psychophysiology was proposed and came to fruition.
Overview of the Articles
We received nine submissions from across the globe, and after a rigorous peer-review process, five manuscripts were accepted for inclusion in this special issue. The authors represent institutions from Brazil, France, Iran, Italy, Sweden, and the United States, and their work addresses several sports (e.g., archery, biathlon, basketball, soccer, swimming) and utilizes different methodologies, namely transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), BFB, and neurofeedback (NFB).
Noteworthy, three manuscripts included in this issue were on either BFB or NFB interventions. Applied researchers are interested in both BFB and NFB because these methods have been shown to positively influence sport performance (Pacheco, 2016; Pagaduan et al., 2020). Moreover, BFB and NFB allow for self-paced practice while also providing multimedia and multimodal stimuli, which, in turn, can aid motivation and retention in both clinical and nonclinical populations (Filho, 2015).
Of the papers on BFB, Pruneti et al. (2023) reviewed the literature and concluded that heart rate variability BFB could be a useful method to influence emotional-psychophysiological and cognitive-behavioral functions in athletes. Specifically, their review showed that heart rate variability BFB can influence chronic stress response stages (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) and help to acutely regulate motor-cognitive arousal.
Fadaei et al. (2024) showed that NFB training (3 days per week over a 10-week period) coupled with swimming exercise was effective in ameliorating stress, anxiety, depression, and the severity of dependence among methamphetamine addicts. Given that substance abuse is a common issue faced by people in sport and other settings (Murray et al., 2024), the findings by Fadaei et al. (2024) are important and should stimulate future research. We encourage researchers to continue examining how psychophysiological interventions coupled with exercise and sport practice can help alleviate symptoms and address the underlying roots of clinical issues.
Toolis et al. (2023) examined whether frontal midline theta power NFB training could improve shooting performance and attentional focus among biathletes. Twenty-eight highly trained biathletes were assigned to either a control group or an intervention group. No significant differences between the groups emerged for either shooting performance or attentional focus. Toolis et al. (2023) concluded that the effects of frontal midline theta power NFB training might be transient and not lead to improved performance for highly skilled athletes. Examining different NFB modalities and targeting athletes of different levels are potential avenues for future research.
Gomez Souffront et al. (2023) examined whether a social media self-talk intervention would improve free throw shooting performance under pressure among skilled (collegiate or higher level of play) basketball players. They concluded that self-talk helped to improve shooting accuracy. They attributed such effects to the fact that self-talk influences somatic physiological reactions and movement automaticity. This study is yet another example of the reciprocal linkage between the mind and the body. Perhaps more importantly, this work illustrates how mental skills training can be delivered using technology and psychophysiological methods; this type of research is of critical importance in our field.
Fortes et al. (2022) examined how the use of repeated tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an area responsible for executive functioning, influenced decision making in a small-sided game and in a screening task in soccer players, with respect to sham control. Specifically, their analyses revealed that postintervention, the tDCS group exhibited a higher number of fixations in the small-sided game and a quicker response time for screen decision-making tasks. Given that longer eye fixations and quicker response times are markers of skilled performance in sports (Kredel et al., 2017; Tenenbaum et al., 2013), these findings are interesting as they suggest that the stimulation of relevant cortex areas can influence decision making. We agree with Fortes et al. (2022) that the stimulation or inhibition of brain areas is a complex matter, as different patterns of (de)activation are implicated in myriad cognitive outcomes. Consequently, more tDCS studies are needed to advance the science and practice of sport and exercise psychophysiology. Generally, we need more randomized controlled trials including diverse psychophysiological measures and methodological approaches (e.g., electroencephalography, functional near-infrared spectroscopy) to study psychology constructs (e.g., confidence, flow, mindfulness, fatigue). Both lab-based and field-based studies are needed.
Concluding Remarks
The diversity of authors from across the globe, the variety of sports represented, and the number of topics included in this issue suggest to us that sport and exercise psychophysiology is here to stay. The articles included here did not cover the entire breadth and depth of the field, which continues to grow. It is our hope, however, that this special issue will help to stimulate more research informed by psychophysiological theories and methodologies. The so-called mind–body interaction is manifested by “many to many” relationships among input, throughput, and output variables. In closing, we invite scholars and practitioners to continue triangulating psychological and physiological methods and theories to advance the study of individuals, teams, and systems in sport, exercise, and other performance domains.
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