Urbanization and Sustainable Development Goals in Oman
Rapid socioeconomic development in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC; Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) has resulted in urbanization, mechanization, and motorization.1 These transitions have brought demographic and epidemiological changes as well as shifts in traditional lifestyles and occupational patterns including a high prevalence of dietary risks and physical inactivity, key behavioral risk factors for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).1 Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG3 on health and SDG11 in sustainable cities, means creating safe, attractive urban environments that support active lifestyles.2,3 Increased walking, cycling, active leisure, sport, and play also contribute to other SDGs and targets like SDG2 (ending all forms of malnutrition), SDG4 (quality education), SDG5 (gender equality), and SDG13 (climate action).4 The National Spatial Strategy 2040 is a prime example of how Oman has integrated the SDGs into their long-term strategies.5 It addresses the challenges of unregulated urbanization, inefficient infrastructure, population growth, and threats to the natural environment with a vision to create walkable communities that preserve national identity, ensure sustainable use of resources, and adapt to the impacts of climate change.6
Built Environments and Physical Activity
Physical inactivity is one of the key drivers of NCDs. Globally, more than 8% of all NCDs deaths are associated with physical inactivity.7 It accounts for more than 7.2% to 7.6% of all deaths related to cardiovascular diseases, 1.6% for hypertension, and 8.1% for dementia. The ratio of NCDs to total premature deaths increases with socioeconomic development and are expected to surpass 70% by 2030.8 Physical inactivity is a growing concern in the GCC. Mabry et al9 showed that levels of physical activity are very low. Oman is one of the few countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region that has developed a national multisectoral physical activity plan that aims for a 10% relative reduction in physical inactivity by 2025.10
The built environment is associated with healthy habits and active living. International studies based on substantial evidence, such as the International Physical Activity and Built Environment Study,11 the Lancet Series on Urban Design, Transportation and Health,2 and Ewing and Cervero’s12 meta-analysis on travel choices report that denser, diverse land-use, and more connected areas are supportive to active travel. The same characteristics of the built environment are equally effective for the prevention of NCDs and infectious diseases.13 The recently released national spatial standards include guidance on providing “accessible, well-connected, pedestrian friendly environments that prioritize pedestrians, cyclists, and transit users before motor vehicle traffic.”6 However, local evidence is needed to develop detailed guidance for improving the built environment supportive of physical activity in the residential districts of Oman and curb the rise of NCDs.14
Assessing the Built Environment
A large body of multidisciplinary research from urban planning, public health, and transportation sciences has developed methods and tools to assess associations of the urban environment with health outcomes. They include a mix of empirical and objective research methods. Assessments use spatial tools,15 interviews,16 accelerometers, and other ways to objectively measure activity levels.17 More comprehensive studies employ a combination of spatial and behavioral tools.18
Environmental attributes relevant to active mobility patterns are divided into 2 categories: macroscale attributes (net residential density and street connectivity) and microscale attributes (pedestrian infrastructure, aesthetics, and safety).19 The most widespread methodology for measuring active built environments is a walkability index and its many variations (eg, walking scores).20 The walkability index focuses on the macroscale elements of the built environment: density, land use, and connectivity often developed using objective measurements generated from Geographical Information System.20,21
Audit tools complement Geographical Information System measurements to facilitate the assessment of microscale elements of the built environment that have an immediate impact on travel choices and behavior of residents and are often neglected in other types of spatial analysis.19 In recent years, environmental audits have become more accessible and a number of tools have been developed to assess public open spaces; some use remote sensing as an alternative to on-street assessment.22–24 The Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) is a tool developed to assess the neighborhood environment’s contribution to active mobility patterns at a microscale level.25,26 Microscale attributes are easier to improve than their macroscale counterparts that demand large investments.25 In this paper, we use the MAPS-mini audit tool to assess the built environment of residential neighborhoods of Oman.27 This study is the first step of the Physical Activity and the Built Environment research project (PABE), a multicity study funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Research and Innovation, Oman.
Methods
Selection of Study Areas
The PABE research project involves 2 cities of Oman—Nizwa and Barka. These cities were selected because they are active participants of the Healthy Cities program of the Ministry of Health; each city has a local team and multisectoral coordination mechanism that facilitates study implementation.
We selected 2 residential areas with a 500-m circular buffer in each city in coordination with local Ministry of Health officials. The selection criteria included neighborhoods with at least one small commercial area plus other amenities (ie, mosques, nursery schools, schools etc), readiness of the local community to participate, and presence of volunteers to assist with data collection for the household survey, phase 2 of the PABE research project. For each city, one selected area was an “Old” urban neighborhood with an established urban infrastructure (higher density, lower number of vacant plots, majority of streets and sidewalks paved) developed 15 years ago or earlier and a “New” urban area with less established urban infrastructure and developed more recently (Figure 1). The PABE study was approved by the ethical committee of the German University of Technology, the Local committees of the Ministry of Health in Barka and Nizwa, as well as the National Center for Statistics and Information of Oman.
Study areas and route selection using Space Syntax.
Citation: Journal of Physical Activity and Health 2025; 10.1123/jpah.2024-0402
Neighborhood Built Environmental Audits
The built environment is a key factor in determining pedestrian access to amenities and the overall use of public open spaces by local residents. To assess the neighborhood built environment, we conducted audits using MAPS-mini, a 15-item tool covering 4 subscales: destinations and land use (commercial destinations, public parks, and transit stops); aesthetics (well-maintained buildings and graffiti); pedestrian infrastructure (benches, street lights, bike path, sidewalk, pavement quality, buffer and trees); and crossings/traffic safety (walk signal, curb ramp, and crosswalk). MAPS-mini is an open-access tool available online (“MAPS” n.d.). This tool has been validated as an observational measure of environmental audits.27 The research team examined each of the items covered by MAPS-mini and decided that no items needed to be modified to suit the local context.
In each study area, 2 routes approximately 1-km long were preselected following a 3-step procedure to allow comparison between routes (Figure 1). First, we employed Space Syntax (https://spacesyntax.com/) segment analysis of betweenness centrality to support the decision of the overall layout of the routes. Space Syntax is a widely accepted tool to emulate pedestrian activity28 and therefore useful to determine which are the most likely trajectories for pedestrians. Second, we checked that each route crossed the whole diameter of the area and passed by, or led to, one or a group of amenities that serve as a destination point in the study area. Finally, the local team of volunteers provided feedback on the route selection and amendments were made when recommended. Given the potential variability throughout the route, each route was divided into 5 sections, a segment and a crossing. Two raters independently assessed each segment of each route using the MAPS-mini tool. This required completing the full tool for all segments of the route and respective crossings.
Scoring and Reliability
Each rater assigned a score, either 0-1 or 0-1-2 for each of the 15 subscales (12 items for segments and 3 for crossings) for each section of the selected route. The section score was the sum of the scores divided by 21 (maximum score); the score for the full route was the average score for the 5 sections. The scores by both raters were then compared to determine the final score where we averaged unmatched single-item scores when there were minor discrepancies within the acceptable range. The higher the ratio, the better the neighborhood environment quality as per the MAPS-mini scoring rating for environmental quality supportive for active transport (<0.2 = very poor, 0.2–0.39 = poor, 0.4–0.59 = fair, 0.6–0.79 = good, ≥0.8 = excellent). We used group means comparison (t test) to validate the conceptual construct of “Old” versus “New” neighborhood structures.
The interrater reliability was calculated in SPSS through intraclass correlation. The results are classified according to Cicchetti.24,29 Significance was tested at .05 alpha and the intraclass correlation coefficient model was set as 2-way fixed (raters are fixed), absolute agreement (how approximated the scoring between raters are rather than their linear relation). The interrater agreement was within the acceptable threshold (intraclass correlation coefficient = .675 >.6). Also, the model tested significantly at alpha <.01.
Results
The overall average score of all routes was 0.18 (“very poor”); scores across the 4 neighborhoods were “very poor” ranging between 0.14 (Somham) and 0.20 (Khuraiat). The lowest and highest section scores were in Khuraiat and Barka (0.07 and 0.31, respectively). The scores between the 2 cities (Nizwa = 0.19 and Barka = 0.17) and between the Old and New residential areas (Nizwa: Farq = 0.18, Raddad Al Busaid = 0.19, Barka: Khuraiat = 0.20, Somham = 0.14, respectively) were not statistically significant (P = .201; Table 1).
Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes-Mini Mean Scores for Residential Neighborhoods in Barka and Nizwa, Oman, by Segment and Route
Study area | Score | Route | Score | Segment | Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nizwa | |||||
Farq (Old) | 0.18 | 1 | 0.17 | 1.1 | 0.17 |
1.2 | 0.19 | ||||
1.3 | 0.14 | ||||
1.4 | 0.14 | ||||
1.5 | 0.19 | ||||
2 | 0.20 | 2.1 | 0.19 | ||
2.2 | 0.26 | ||||
2.3 | 0.21 | ||||
2.4 | 0.17 | ||||
2.5 | 0.17 | ||||
Raddat Al Busaid (New) | 0.19 | 1 | 0.20 | 1.1 | 0.29 |
1.2 | 0.14 | ||||
1.3 | 0.19 | ||||
1.4 | 0.19 | ||||
1.5 | 0.19 | ||||
2 | 0.18 | 2.1 | 0.19 | ||
2.2 | 0.12 | ||||
2.3 | 0.14 | ||||
2.4 | 0.26 | ||||
2.5 | 0.19 | ||||
Barka | |||||
Khuraiat (Old) | 0.20 | 1 | 0.26 | 1.1 | 0.31 |
1.2 | 0.19 | ||||
1.3 | 0.26 | ||||
1.4 | 0.29 | ||||
1.5 | 0.24 | ||||
2 | 0.15 | 2.1 | 0.07 | ||
2.2 | 0.07 | ||||
2.3 | 0.17 | ||||
2.4 | 0.17 | ||||
2.5 | 0.29 | ||||
Somhaam (New) | 0.14 | 1 | 0.15 | 1.1 | 0.17 |
1.2 | 0.14 | ||||
1.3 | 0.14 | ||||
1.4 | 0.14 | ||||
1.5 | 0.14 | ||||
2 | 0.12 | 2.1 | 0.17 | ||
2.2 | 0.14 | ||||
2.3 | 0.10 | ||||
2.4 | 0.10 | ||||
2.5 | 0.12 |
Given the similarity of the MAPS-mini scores across all study areas, pooled scores are presented for the 4 subscales and 15 items (Table 2). Segments and crossings showcase overall low average scores (Segments μs = 0.24 and Crossings μc = 0.06). The highest subscale score was for the aesthetics subscale (0.64), the only subscale ranked good quality. The other subscales were below the fair threshold with the lowest for destination and land use (0.06).
Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes-Mini Mean Scores for Residential Neighborhoods in Barka and Nizwa, by Item and Subscales
Item description | N | SD | Mean |
---|---|---|---|
Segment | 479 | 0.36 | 0.24 |
Destination and land use | 0.06 | ||
Commercial/residential | 40 | 0.42 | 0.25 |
Parks | 40 | 0.06 | 0.01 |
Transit stops | 40 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Aesthetics | 0.64 | ||
Buildings maintenance | 40 | 0.39 | 0.29 |
Graffiti | 40 | 0.11 | 0.98 |
Pedestrian/cyclist infrastructure | 0.19 | ||
Benches | 40 | 0.18 | 0.08 |
Street lights | 40 | 0.34 | 0.44 |
Bike path | 40 | 0.09473 | 0.03 |
Sidewalk | 40 | 0.30 | 0.21 |
Pavement quality | 40 | 0.27151 | 0.38 |
Buffer | 40 | 0.12 | 0.17 |
Trees | 39 | 0.056 | 0.01 |
Crossings | 120 | 0.15 | 0.06 |
Crossings and safety | 0.06 | ||
Signal | 40 | 0.22 | 0.13 |
Ramp | 40 | 0.11 | 0.06 |
Crosswalk | 40 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Of the 15 items in the MAPS-mini tool, graffiti scored the highest (0.98) indicating a near absence of graffiti in the study areas (Table 2). The next highest score was for streetlights (0.44); all other scores were below 0.40, the fair threshold. Transit stops and crosswalks scored 0 indicating that they are not available in these neighborhoods, while parks (0.01) and trees covering the walkways (0.13) scored in the very poor range.
Discussion
This study demonstrated, for the first time, the reliability and utility of the MAPS-mini tool for use in cities of the GCC. The results confirmed the low walkability assumptions commonly mentioned in urban planning and physical activity studies in Oman and neighboring countries.30,31 Authorities in Oman are engaged in improving the built environment following the SDGs agenda and have developed national planning guidance to provide higher standards of living for citizens including pedestrian friendly environments.6,32 Similar scores between the 2 cities and the old and new neighborhoods showed that these residential areas were scattered and incomplete and point to the need for regeneration, densification, and improved integration of land use.
Although the selection of study areas included a small cluster of commercial services and community amenities as a criterion, accessibility of destinations scored the lowest of the 4 MAPS-mini scores across all 4 study areas. Negative perceptions and objective measures on low land-use mix have been found in other studies in Oman.33–35 The MAPS-mini subscale includes 3 items to access destinations: commercial areas, public parks, and public transit stops. The allocation of commercial entities for daily needs like a barbershop, grocery store, coffee shop, and a mosque are prescribed by law.31,36 National recommendations include high accessibility to local mosques, nurseries, shops, playgrounds, and a local square within a 5-minute walk.6 Parks are rarely found in residential areas throughout the country, and public transit stops are only available in some locations in the capital area of Muscat for the new but expanding public transportation service which explains the low score for this subscale. Urban planning systems in Oman and the region do not easily address pedestrian accessibility due to monofunctional land allocation, large parcel sizes, and land use density.37,38 Improving land use in residential neighborhoods requires many mixed-use areas and parks which could be strategically located, such as on street corners, and along collector streets, noting that commerce and education, mosques, and parks are highly appreciated in Oman.33,37 Further research on how best to meet the national recommendations of more compact residential areas with community facilities that encourage social gathering is needed.
Pedestrian infrastructure is among the most common elements people prioritize in discussions about supportive environments for active living in Oman35,39 and is closely linked to traffic safety; 2 subscales of MAPS-mini. A supportive physical environment requires a good physical infrastructure to make walking not only the easy choice but a safe choice in terms of road safety.34 While crime safety rates are very low in Oman, the car-oriented planning approach and its associated lack of traffic safety measures targeted to improve active transport are a major barrier to active transport like walking.33 National standards recommend retrofitting street networks including traffic calming elements and tree planting.6 Evidence, mostly from Australia, Europe, and the United States, demonstrate that improving pedestrian infrastructure and providing parks and greenways in close proximity to residential areas has a positive effect on walking.40,41 Alleyways are a unique aspect of residential infrastructure in the GCC. They enhance connectivity and could complement retrofitting of streets42, though they are often unused. The next phase of the PABE project aims to build on locally relevant research to identify priority cost-effective short-term interventions to improve pedestrian infrastructure for the local context.
Cooling ground surface microclimates is a priority to address concerns about the hot arid climate where the mean temperature is above 30 °C for at least 6 months of the year; though with climate change, the temperatures are going to rise. The presence of trees, the only MAPS-mini item related to shading, scored very poor. Regional evidence reports that urban design elements including traditional urban compact design with narrow streets, orientation of streets, materials used for the ground surfaces, and landscaping, shading surfaces, and creating wind passages can improve the microclimate.38,43–45 Cost-effective redesign and retrofitting of residential areas to increase pedestrian activity involves a mix of green and gray infrastructure; this mix has been shown to have a better impact on outdoor thermal comfort than greenery alone.45–47
This study demonstrated the utility of the MAPS-mini as an accessible tool for auditing the built environment in Oman. A key limitation for this study was defining clear criteria to categorize neighborhood typologies, especially selecting study areas with more significant variation in the built environment, due to the haphazard development patterns in Oman.14,48 Thus, further research by including study areas in Oman and neighboring countries with more significant environmental variations is critical to confirm the utility of this tool for the regional context. Examining correlation of these objective measures with perceptions of the built environment and physical activity measurements could provide insight into how to design a comprehensive strategy to guide regeneration strategies at a microscale level. These latter points will be explored in subsequent steps of the PABE project.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated, for the first time, the utility of the MAPS-mini tool as an objective measure of the built environment for use in cities of the GCC. The low scores across all neighborhoods studied point to the urgent need to improve the environmental quality in residential areas to support an active lifestyle, and to meet the national standard of having local amenities within a 5-minute walk in residential areas. Of critical importance is identifying cost-effective adaptations of the built environment that could substantially increase physical activity outcomes of the population. Further regionally relevant research can help identify specific design elements needed for more walker friendly neighborhoods.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the walis (mayors), the Healthy Cities teams in Barka and Nizwa, and the community members in the 4 neighborhoods for their support and engagement without which this study would not have been possible. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Ministry of Health, Oman. Funding: This project has been financially supported by the Open Grant Program (BFP/RGP/CBS/22/318) of the Ministry of Higher Education Research and Innovation, Oman.
References
- 1.↑
Rahim HF, Sibai A, Khader Y, et al. Non-communicable diseases in the Arab world. Lancet. 2014;383(9914):356–367. doi:
- 2.↑
Giles-Corti B, Vernez-Moudon A, Reis R, et al. City planning and population health: a global challenge. Lancet. 2016;388(10062):2912–2924. doi:
- 3.↑
Salvo D, Garcia L, Reis RS, et al. Physical activity promotion and the United Nations sustainable development goals: building synergies to maximize impact. J Phys Act Health. 2021;18(10):1163–1180. doi:
- 4.↑
World Health Organization. Global Action Plan on Physical Activity, 2018–2030, More Active People for a Healthier World. World Health Organization; 2018.
- 5.↑
Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning Oman. Oman National Spatial Strategy. Muscat. Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning; 2020.
- 6.↑
Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning Oman. Oman National Spatial Strategy 2040, National Planning Standards. Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning; 2023.
- 7.↑
Katzmarzyk PT, Friedenreich C, Shiroma EJ, Lee I-M. Physical inactivity and non-communicable disease burden in low-income, middle-income and high-income countries. Br J Sports Med. 2022;56(2):101–106. doi:
- 8.↑
Wang Y, Wang J. Modelling and prediction of global non-communicable diseases. BMC Public Health. 2020;20:1–13.
- 9.↑
Mabry R, Koohsari MJ, Bull F, Owen N. A systematic review of physical activity and sedentary behaviour research in the oil-producing countries of the Arabian Peninsula. BMC Public Health. 2016;16(1):1003. doi:
- 10.↑
Al Siyabi H, Mabry RM, Al Siyabi A, Milton K. A critique of national physical activity policy in Oman using three established policy frameworks. J Phys Act Health. 2021;18(12):1473–1478. doi:
- 11.↑
Sallis JF, Cerin E, Kerr J, et al. Built environment, physical activity, and obesity: findings from the International Physical Activity and Environment Network (IPEN) adult study. Ann Rev Public Health. 2020;41(1):119–139. doi:
- 12.↑
Ewing R, Cervero R. Travel and the built environment: a meta-analysis. J Am Plann Assoc. 2010;76(3):265–294. doi:
- 13.↑
Adlakha D, Sallis JF. Activity-friendly neighbourhoods can benefit non-communicable and infectious diseases. Cities & Health. 2021;5(suppl):S191–S195. doi:
- 14.↑
De Siqueira G, Mabry R, Al Siyabi H, Adeel A, Malaj S, Oyeyemi A. Construct validity of the physical activity neighborhood environment scale-Oman. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1007075. doi:
- 15.↑
Frank LD, Schmid TL, Sallis JF, Chapman J, Saelens BE. Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form: findings from SMARTRAQ. Am J Prev Med. 2005;28(2 ):117–125. doi:
- 16.↑
Adams MA, Ryan S, Kerr J, et al. Validation of the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS) items using geographic information systems. J Phys Act Health. 2009;6(suppl):S113–S123. doi:
- 17.↑
Firth CL, Kestens Y, Winters M, et al. Using combined Global Position System and accelerometer data points to examine how built environments and gentrification are associated with physical activity in four Canadian cities. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2022;19(1):78. doi:
- 18.↑
Cain KL, Salmon J, Conway TL, et al. International physical activity and built environment study of adolescents: IPEN Adolescent design, protocol and measures. BMJ Open. 2021;11(1):e046636. doi:
- 19.↑
Cerin E, Cain KL, Conway TL, et al. Neighborhood environments and objectively measured physical activity in 11 countries. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(12):2253–2264. doi:
- 20.↑
Frank LD, Sallis JF, Saelens BE, et al. The development of a walkability index: application to the Neighborhood Quality of Life Study. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(13):924–933. doi:
- 21.↑
Carr LJ, Dunsiger SI, Marcus BH. Validation of Walk Score for estimating access to walkable amenities. Br J Sports Med. 2011;45(14):1144–1148. doi:
- 22.↑
Kan HY, Forsyth A, Molinsky J. Measuring the built environment for aging in place: a review of neighborhood audit tools. J Plan Lit. 2020;35(2):180–194. doi:
- 23.
Edwards N, Hooper P, Trapp GS, Bull F, Boruff B, Giles-Corti B. Development of a public open space desktop auditing tool (POSDAT): a remote sensing approach. Appl Geogr. 2013;38:22–30. doi:
- 24.↑
Fox EH, Chapman JE, Moland AM, et al. International evaluation of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) Global instrument: comparative assessment between local and remote online observers. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2021;18(1):84. doi:
- 25.↑
Cain KL, Millstein RA, Sallis JF, et al. Contribution of streetscape audits to explanation of physical activity in four age groups based on the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS). Soc Sci Med. 2014;116:82–92. doi:
- 26.↑
Sallis JF, Cain KL, Conway TL, et al. Peer reviewed: is your neighborhood designed to support physical activity? A brief streetscape audit tool. Prev Chronic Dis. 2015;12.
- 27.↑
Cain KL, Gavand KA, Conway TL, et al. Developing and validating an abbreviated version of the Microscale Audit for Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS-Abbreviated). J Transp Health. 2017;5:84–96. doi:
- 28.↑
Koohsari MJ, Oka K, Owen N, Sugiyama T. Natural movement: A space syntax theory linking urban form and function with walking for transport. Health Place. 2019;58:102072. doi:
- 29.↑
Cicchetti DV. Methodological commentary the precision of reliability and validity estimates re-visited: distinguishing between clinical and statistical significance of sample size requirements. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2001;23(5):695–700. doi:
- 30.↑
Galal Ahmed K, Alipour SMH. More dense but less walkable: the impact of macroscale walkability indicators on recent designs of Emirati neighborhoods. City, Territory and Architecture. 2021;8(1):12. doi:
- 31.↑
de Siqueira G, Adeel A, Pasha P, Balushi AA, Shah SAR. Sustainable transportation and policy development: A study for impact analysis of mobility patterns and neighborhood assessment of walking behavior. Sustainability. 2021;13(4):1871. doi:
- 32.↑
Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning Oman. Oman National Spatial Strategy 2040, Volume 1 National Vision, Strategy and Policy Framework. Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning; 2023.
- 33.↑
De Siqueira G, Al Balushi A. Co-designing the pedestrian revolution in Muscat. City, Territory and Architecture. 2020;7(1):11. doi:
- 34.↑
Mabry R. Urbanization and physical activity, a case study in Oman. In: The London School of Economics and Political Science LKP, ed. LSE Kuwait Programme Paper Series. London School of Economics; 2018.
- 35.↑
Mabry R, Owen N, Eakin E. A National strategy for promoting physical activity in Oman: a call for action. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2014;14(2):e170–e175.
- 36.↑
Alalouch C, Al-Hajri S, Naser A, Al Hinai A. The impact of space syntax spatial attributes on urban land use in Muscat: Implications for urban sustainability. Sustain Cities Soc. 2019;46:101417. doi:
- 37.↑
Alawadi K. Rethinking Dubai’s urbanism: Generating sustainable form-based urban design strategies for an integrated neighborhood. Cities. 2017;60(2017):353–366. doi:
- 38.↑
Nebel S, von Richthofen A, eds. Urban Oman, Trends and perspectives of urbanisation in Muscat capital area. LIT Verlag; 2016.
- 39.↑
Mabry R, Al Siyabi H, Kannan M, Al Siyabi A. Move for health: a policy brief addressing the built environment and physical activity in Oman. East Mediterr Health J. 2019;25(12):923–927. doi:
- 40.↑
Smith M, Hosking J, Woodward A, et al. Systematic literature review of built environment effects on physical activity and active transport—an update and new findings on health equity. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14(1):158. doi:
- 41.↑
Tcymbal A, Demetriou Y, Kelso A, et al. Effects of the built environment on physical activity: a systematic review of longitudinal studies taking sex/gender into account. Environ Health Prev Med. 2020;25(1):75. doi:
- 42.↑
Alawadi K, Khanal A, Al Hinai S. Rethinking suburban design: streets v/s alleys in improving network connectivity. J Urban Des. 2021;26(6):725–745. doi:
- 43.↑
Taleb H, Taleb D. Enhancing the thermal comfort on urban level in a desert area: Case study of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Urban For Urban Green. 2014;13(2):253–260. doi:
- 44.
Zakhour S. The impact of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort conditions in hot-arid region. J Civ Eng Archit Res. 2015;2(8):862–875.
- 45.↑
Hamdan DMA, De Oliveira FL. The impact of urban design elements on microclimate in hot arid climatic conditions: Al Ain City, UAE. Energy Build. 2019;200:86–103. doi:
- 46.
Aleksandrova KI, McWilliam WJ, Wesener A. Status and future directions for residential street infrastructure retrofit research. Urban Sci. 2019;3(2):49. doi:
- 47.↑
Bande L, Adan R, Young K, et al. Outdoor thermal comfort study on a district level as part of the housing programs in Abu Dhabi and Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Land. 2021;10(3):264. doi:
- 48.↑
Al Siyabi H, Mabry R, Al Subhi M, de Siqueira G. Adaptation of the physical activity neighborhood environment scale in Oman. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2021;21(4):626–631. doi: