Physical activity (PA) levels are partly responsible for energy intake (4). People who are more active tend to be more sensitive to their energy status and either increase or decrease their energy intake to match their demand according to their appetite/satiety signals (9). This control over their energy intake could play a positive role in attaining an energy-neutral state (2). Although PA has a definitive impact on subsequent feeding, the mechanisms behind this effect remain unclear. Acute and chronic PA could provide benefits regarding our overall senses and, thus, enhance the quality of life in people who are more prone to sensory loss. PA levels are positively associated with a better sensory system, such that better sight, smell, taste, and even hearing capacities were observed in more active populations (26).
Across our lifespan, our sense of taste undergoes many changes. Age significantly affects sweet taste perception, with participants 8–10 years old perceiving sweetness less intensely than those 14–16 and 20–25 years old (8). This perception increases with age across different sweetened beverage concentrations. In addition, a preference for lower sucrose concentrations emerges with age, indicating an inverse relationship between sweetness preference and sucrose concentration (8). Recently, it also has been highlighted that sweet taste threshold is higher in both children and adolescents when compared with adults, meaning that they had lower sensitivity to sucrose than their adult counterpart (31). This could be attributed to changes in the brain’s reward centers, which occur during the transition from childhood, through adolescence, to early adulthood (31). In addition, this could be linked to the increased energy requirements associated with growth during childhood and early adolescence (31). However, children and adolescents with a higher preference for sweet taste were found to have twice the likelihood of being overweight or obese compared with those with a lower sweet taste preference (34). Considering these observations, monitoring sweet taste preference in children and adolescents could be an interesting factor to assess regarding their risk of developing overweight or obesity status. On the other end of the spectrum, taste alterations generally occur after age 70, with 27% of people over 80 years old reporting taste problems (32). For the elderly, loss of taste can lead to appetite reduction, dietary preference changes, malnutrition, and involuntary weight loss. This taste loss is mainly attributed to a decrease in the number and responsiveness of taste buds, potentially exacerbated by a decline in oral mucosa resilience and salivary gland function, resulting in dry mouth (19). Overall, an optimal gustatory function could contribute to a healthier weight status and an improvement in quality of life.
Our lab conducted a systematic review on the overall impact of exercise specifically on taste perceptions (12). In this review, it was mentioned that exercise did increase sweet taste and salty taste preferences. Although sensitivity and intensity of sweet taste were increased following exercise, they were both lowered for salty taste (12). This systematic review included 18 studies (12) and although the impact of exercise on taste has been documented in the past few decades, the literature is still lacking overall content. For example, it is still ambiguous regarding the impact of exercise on sweet taste appreciation. Although appreciation can be increased following acute PA (16,17,22,29), people who chronically practice PA on a regular basis have an overall lowered preference for sweetness (7,10). Recently, it was documented that, in people who live with type 2 diabetes, regular aerobic exercise could significantly bolster their sweet taste sensitivity by increasing their perceived intensity of sweet solutions and decreasing their overall sweet preference following a 6-month intervention (37).
Another important observation in our systematic review is that the studies included had different forms of exercise modalities, where higher exercise intensities were less common (12). Most of them could be considered aerobic exercise, usually at lower intensities and maintaining a steady pace. The exercise sessions mostly contained submaximal exercise prescribed at a percentage of the participants maximal oxygen consumption (70%) or maximal heart rate (50%–75% of Hrmax) (12). Although some examples of higher exercise intensities have been reported across the literature, they are usually done at a steady pace at around 80% of the participant’s Hrmax (15). To our knowledge, no study has examined the effect of higher exercise intensities on taste in a younger population (ie, <18 y old). In the literature, it has been documented that exercise can induce intensity-dependent increases in anorexigenic hormones and decreases in orexigenic hormones, with higher intensities having the strongest effects (18). Because these hormones are linked to taste perceptions (24), monitoring exercise intensity could be crucial to explore the relationship between exercise and taste. Our team has also observed previously that an active lifestyle appears to protect taste integrity in adults (58.5 [11.9] y old) (11). The majority of this beneficial effect was seen when higher intensity PA, compared with moderate intensity or no PA, was practiced more frequently and for longer periods. These results highlight the potential advantages of consistent vigorous PA in enhancing taste response (11).
Since the literature is mainly done on healthy normal-weight individuals (12), it was wondered whether the same results could be replicated in a young athletic adolescent population since changes in taste perceptions have previously been observed in youth (31). In addition, most of the literature regarding the impact of exercise on taste perceptions has documented sweet and salty tastes as outcomes (12). Bitterness is one of the least explored tastes and therefore why it was essential to include this taste in the current study. Although the literature on bitterness in relation to food consumption is still scarce, there is some evidence that bitter sensitivity and overall taste function could have implications regarding energy consumption (5).
The objective of the current pilot study was to investigate if athletic adolescent boys had better identification capacities and increased taste intensity perception and appreciation for individual tastes (sweet, salty, and bitter solutions) following an acute session of intensity aerobic exercise. When compared with the pretesting results, it was hypothesized that teenager athletes would have overall better identification capacities and that there would be a significant increase in their ratings of taste intensity for every solution, while taste appreciation of sweet and salty solutions would also increase following exercise.
Method
Study Design
This study recruited boys aged 14 to 16 from a local high school hockey team, with exclusion criteria for dietary restraints (specific diets, allergies, and/or eating disorders), medication affecting taste (antifungals, antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, immunosuppressants, chemotherapy, and medications for neurological and/or psychiatric disorders), lasting COVID-19 side effects, and recent COVID-19 or physical exercise restrictions. Participants were asked to abstain from exercise, alcohol, drugs, and tobacco for 12 hours prior to testing. Informed written consent was obtained before the study, which was approved by the ethic committee of the University of Montreal (CERSES #2021-392). Participants arrived at 9:00 AM and were randomly divided into 5 different subgroups for testing feasibility purposes (sanitary restrictions, exercise supervision, and tasting protocol) in which each participant was given a letter corresponding to a randomized taste sequence.
Population Characteristics
As shown in Table 1, participants (n = 19) had a mean age of 14.7 (0.7) years, a mean height of 173.4 (7.9) cm, a mean body mass of 59.6 (7.8) kg, and a mean body fat percentage of 11.6% (3.1%). They consumed on average 298.7 (142.8) mL of water during the experiment. Participants were all classified as high level of PA according to their metabolic equivalent of task (METs)-minutes per week results for the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Adolescent.
Participants General Characteristics
| Mean (SD) | |
|---|---|
| Age, y | 14.7 (0.7) |
| Body weight, kg | |
| Pre | 59.7 (7.8) |
| Post | 59.3 (7.8) |
| Body fat, % | 11.6 (3.1) |
| Height, cm | 173.4 (7.9) |
| Water consumption, mL | 298.7 (142.8) |
| PA levels, METs-min/wk | 5429 (1919) |
METs indicates metabolic equivalent of task.
Experimental Protocol
Participants were first asked to consume an appetite normalizing snack, which consisted of ad libitum Clif bars, to reach an appetite feeling of the equivalent to 4 out of 5, which was noted on a visual analog scale (VAS) 30 minutes before the first taste test. After the snack, their body weight and body fat mass were measured using bioelectrical impedance (TB350, Tanita). Their height was measured with a portable stadiometer (SECA 217). Participants were then tasked to the French version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Adolescent to assess their general PA levels (14). Then, each participant underwent the taste evaluation sequence described below before moving on to the aerobic exercise session (Figure 1). The research team monitored each participant’s water consumption from the end of the first taste test until the last weight measurement. After the exercise session, each participant was asked to complete the same taste evaluation, which was randomized between participants in each group, and participants were weighed one last time before leaving.
—Testing sequence in minutes for each participant. PA indicates physical activity.
Citation: Pediatric Exercise Science 37, 2; 10.1123/pes.2024-0040
Taste Test Protocol
Each participant was presented with the same randomized cup order before and after exercise. Disposable cups were filled with 4 different tastes (sweet, salty, bitter, and water). Bitter solutions had a concentration of 10.0 and 5.0 g/L (caffeine pills), sweet solutions had a concentration of 82.0 and 41.0 g/L (sucrose), and salty solutions had a concentration of 17.4 and 8.7 g/L (sodium chloride). Solutions were half-concentrated tastant and fully-concentrated tastant or water. The solutions were presented under red lights, so color differences were indiscernible. Each participant had to identify 7 solutions individually and evaluate the perceived intensity and appreciation of the solution. For the identification question, participants were given 5 choices: bitter, sweet, salty, no taste, and other. They were asked to fill out these questions following each solution, for a total of 7 times.
Intensity ratings were done on a 100 mm VAS, ranging from no taste whatsoever to the strongest taste experienced. The usage of VAS has been one of the cornerstones of sensory evaluation, as it seems to offer precise subjective results and evidence of treatment (3). The appreciation scale was a standardized 9-point hedonic scale, where participants had to give a score ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely), with 5 being neither like nor dislike for every solution. The 9-point hedonic scale is a standardized scale that has been validated, and is used to assess food/taste preferences (36). Participants were assigned to individual tables so they would not be able to see the other participants. Participants were asked to swish 10 to 15 mL of the solutions around their mouth for around 5 seconds before spitting it out and then rinse their mouths between each taste solution by swirling water back and forth in their mouths 8 times.
Exercise Protocol
Each participant wore a heart rate monitor (Polar Team2 Pro) for the exercise session. Participants were first asked to jog lightly for 3 to 5 minutes around the running track to warm up. Then, the exercise session had participants track their running for 30 minutes with increasing intensity every 10 minutes. They all started at 70% of their Hrmax for 10 minutes, then 80% of their Hrmax for 10 minutes, and finally, 90% of their Hrmax for 10 minutes. Hrmax, according to a recent systematic review on the prediction of the Hrmax of children and adolescents, was set at 197 beats per minute (6,13). Participants had to be within 5 beats per minute of their targeted heart rate for the intensity that was indicated, and a researcher monitored (Polar Team2 Pro) each group for the whole duration of the exercise session.
Statistical Analyses
Age (y old), height (cm), body mass (kg), body fat percentage (%), and water consumption (mL) were presented as a mean (SD). To analyze the identification, the intensity, and the appreciation data, respectively, McNemmar tests, standard paired t-tests, and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used for every solution. Cohen d effect size tests were also performed to analyze the data, and all statistical analyses were done using IBM SPSS Statistics 27 (Endicott). Cohen d classification scale is as follows: very small (0 ≤ Cohen d < 0.20), small (0.20 ≤ Cohen d < 0.50), medium (0.50 ≤ Cohen d < 0.80), and large (Cohen d ≥ 0.80).
Results
Identification Test
No significant results were obtained regarding the identification of each solution (see Table 2).
Identification Test Results
| Taste | Pre, % | Post, % | P |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bitter | |||
| Full concentration | 67 | 72 | .564 |
| Half concentration | 63 | 79 | .257 |
| Salty | |||
| Full concentration | 89 | 94 | .317 |
| Half concentration | 83 | 83 | 1.000 |
| Sweet | |||
| Full concentration | 100 | 100 | 1.000 |
| Half concentration | 100 | 90 | .157 |
| Water | 83 | 83 | 1.000 |
Results are displayed as a percentage of rightfully identified solution.
Intensity Test
Only the half-concentrated sweet solution for the intensity test yielded significant results with a mean prescore of 49/100 mm and a postscore of 64/100 mm (P = .037, d = 0.516) (see Figure 2).
—Salty and sweet taste intensity before and after exercise. Dots represent individual participants. Box plots represent the median with the lower and upper quartiles. The vertical lines represent the minimum and the maximum values, excluding outliers. VAS indicates visual analog scale.
Citation: Pediatric Exercise Science 37, 2; 10.1123/pes.2024-0040
Although other taste solutions did not reach significance, a possible effect was noted for half-concentrated and fully-concentrated salty solutions, which were almost classified as medium effect sizes (P = .0501, d = 0.497 and P = .0543, d = 0.472, respectively). Half-concentrated bitter solutions (P = .348, d = 0.221) and fully-concentrated bitter (P = .084, d = 0.420) and sweet (P = .570, d = 0.133) solutions did not change significantly and were all classified as very small or small effect size according to Cohen d parameters.
Appreciation Test
Both half-concentrated and fully-concentrated sweet solutions for the appreciation tests increased significantly: the half-concentrated sweet taste solution had a mean prescore of 6.6/9.0 and a postscore of 7.9/9.0 (P = .004, d = 0.776) and the fully-concentrated sweet taste solution had a mean prescore of 7.2/9.0 and a postscore of 8.3/9.0 (P = .009, d = 0.698) (see Figure 3).
—Sweet taste appreciation before and after exercise. Dots represent individual participants. Box plots represent the median with the lower and upper quartiles. The vertical lines represent the minimum and the maximum values, excluding outliers.
Citation: Pediatric Exercise Science 37, 2; 10.1123/pes.2024-0040
Half-concentrated (P = .578, d = 0.130) and fully-concentrated (P = .164, d = 0.341) salty solutions as well as half-concentrated (P = .447, d = 0.147) and fully-concentrated (P = 1.000, d < 0.001) bitter solutions did not change significantly, and their effect sizes were considered very small or small.
Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the effect of an acute session of intense aerobic exercise on the taste perception of athletic adolescent boys. It is unique in its use of a ramping high-intensity running session and younger population compared with previous exercise-taste studies. Taste identification did not change, but taste appreciation and intensity for half-concentrated and fully-concentrated sweet solutions were increased after exercise. Although some trends were present for the half-concentrated and fully-concentrated salty solutions, especially regarding their intensity, no significant results were obtained. No significant results were found for bitter solutions.
Sweet
No significant results were obtained for the identification taste test for the sweet solutions. Even though each half-concentrated solution had a subtle taste, participants could clearly distinguish each taste individually. Conventionally, this kind of testing can be done in a sensitivity testing fashion. Taste sensitivity testing is used to assess the minimum threshold at which a person can detect a specific taste and identify it (35). This kind of testing usually involves different concentrations of the same tastant, which can be presented in a randomized order. Because this protocol had a time constraint, it was only feasible to fit 2 concentrations per taste for the identification test.
People who exercise regularly tend to rate sweet taste intensity higher when compared with controlled groups (7,10,21). Furthermore, as reported by Ali et al (1), intensity ratings for sweetness are at their highest during the exercise session compared with preconditions and postconditions. Although our protocol did also report some significant increases in intensity ratings regarding sweet taste, it was only with the half-concentrated sweet solution. For the half-concentrated sweet taste solution, a significant increase of 31% was obtained when comparing postexercise values with preexercise values with an effect size that would be considered medium, with a score of 0.516 under the Cohen d parameters. One fundamental explanation of these results could be that the fully-concentrated solution already had high-intensity ratings at baseline when compared with the half-concentrated solution, suggesting a ceiling effect. The difference in mean ratings between the 2 solutions at baseline was 20 mm on the 100 mm scale, with values hovering around 49.0 and 69.7 mm, respectively. The latter result is a byproduct of the already highly concentrated solution. Feeney et al (10), who used roughly the same concentration as in this protocol for the higher concentration sucrose solutions to evaluate sweetness intensity (ie, 82.0 g/L), found a significant difference between active and inactive populations. Although these results differ from ours, the participants in our current study were all active individuals and taste tests were obtained before and after a single exercise session compared with the Feeney protocol, where exercise levels were self-reported, giving an overall view of their PA levels. Narukawa, who used even higher concentration solutions for the highly concentrated sucrose solution (102.0 g/L) with a much longer exercise session (36 km mountain hike for 12 h), also found no significant difference between preexercise and postexercise acute results (28), which is somewhat in agreement with the current study.
When looking at the literature, the vast majority is done on appreciation parameters, such as perceived pleasantness, preferences, hedonic ratings, and overall liking (12). Reports of increased preference for sweetness following exercise were done with varying concentrations of sucrose (16,17) or with sweet fruit drinks (22). Although King et al (22) used VASs to assess sweet preferences, Horio and Kawamura (17) used a 7-point hedonic scale and Horio (16) used a 9-point hedonic scale. Our protocol also used a hedonic 9-point evaluation scale to analyze taste appreciation preexercise and postexercise. In line with the literature, the current study did report significant increases of about 20% and 15% for sweet taste appreciations for the half-concentrated and fully-concentrated sweet solutions, respectively, following exercise. The effect size for both half-concentrated and fully-concentrated sweet taste solutions would be considered medium, with a d = 0.776 and 0.698, respectively. Under Cohen d parameters, the half-concentrated sweet solution is on the edge of a large effect size (Cohen d ≥ 0.80). These results add compelling evidence that sweet preference is increased following an acute bout of exercise. As proposed by researchers investigating the effect of PA on sweet taste perceptions, modulations in taste may be attributed to its impact on different anorexigenic hormones such as leptin, and possibly glucagonlike peptide-1 and peptide YY (37). Given that satiety hormones are associated with varying taste perceptions (24), the influence of exercise on these hormones could be a key factor in explaining the effect of PA on sweet taste perceptions. Positive changes in sweet taste perceptions have been noted in diabetic individuals (ie, increase in sensitivity and decrease in preference) after a 6-month aerobic exercise program (37) It has been documented that a 6-month lifestyle intervention, which included exercise as one of its components, could be beneficial for gustatory function in children with obesity (20). Following this intervention, better identification capacities and higher ratings of intensity were noted in participants, compared with their initial scores (20). It would be worthwhile to investigate whether chronic PA alone could induce similar changes in youths, and whether these are due to hormonal shifts or other mechanisms. Then, it would be interesting to see if these long-term changes can have a positive impact on energy consumption or food choices in children who are more prone to overconsumption.
Salty
For the identification test of the salty solutions, participants were mostly able to quickly identify each salty solution, for both half-concentrated and fully-concentrated ones. Similar to the sweet taste identification, no significant results were obtained when preexercise to postexercise values were compared. This could partly be explained by the fact that the salty solutions were also heavily distinguishable from the other taste solutions at baseline (pre = 84.2% vs post = 83.3%, P = .05 and pre = 88.9% vs post = 94.7%, P = .05, for half-concentrated and fully-concentrated solutions, respectively).
A significant decrease in perceived saltiness intensity following exercise has only been reported in another study (1). Ali et al (1) conducted a study in which participants’ intensity ratings were lower during the exercise session compared with the preconditions. In addition, the duration of the exercise had a significant impact on these intensity ratings, with differences from preexercise (30 min before) to postexercise ranging from about 31% to 48% difference for the higher electrolyte-containing solutions [2] (1). Although the results obtained in the current study did not reach significance, participants rated the half-concentrated salty solution with a 22% increase in intensity scores following the exercise session compared with the preexercise score (P = .0501). Similarly, the intensity of the fully-concentrated salty solution was around 11% higher when compared with the preexercise session (P = .0543). Our base ratings for the half-concentrated and fully-concentrated salty solutions were 58.9 and 79.6 mm, with concentrations of 8.7 and 17.4 g/L of sodium chloride, respectively. To put in perspective, Ali et al (1) had base saltiness ratings for the higher electrolyte solutions [2] on the VASs of 32.6 and 34.6 mm out of 100 mm, with these solutions containing 0.280 g/L of sodium and 0.141 g/L of potassium. High baseline intensity ratings could partly explain why no significant differences between prevalues and postvalues were present for salty solutions in the present study. The effect sizes for both half-concentrated and fully-concentrated salty solutions (d = 0.497 and 0.472, respectively) could almost be considered as a medium effect sizes. Considering these effect sizes, it could be interesting to keep exploring the link between salt taste intensity and exercise because a medium effect size is nonnegligible. With these results, we could speculate that lower baseline ratings of saltiness combined with more participants could have yielded significant findings and bigger effect sizes.
As previously mentioned, the bulk of the literature is concentrated around preferences and appreciation for overall taste testing (12). Across all articles that reported changes in taste preference for saltiness in link with exercise, a significant increase was noted for acute exercise (23,30,38) and regular PA levels (21). This study did not provide significant results regarding increased appreciation for salty solutions. One explanation might be that the overall liking of the salt solutions was relatively low at the very start. Because these solutions were only composed of salt and water, it could explain why they might have been deemed unpleasant from the beginning. Some authors also reported no change following exercise in preference for saltiness (17). It is to be noted that in the literature when the preference for saltiness is tested following exercise, it is mostly combined with other tastes/ingredients such as sweet and/or sour taste in a solution (1,16,30) or in certain foods that contain varying levels of salt (23). Nevertheless, while the current results align with the overall literature on the matter, no significant differences were obtained while analyzing the data.
Bitter
Bitterness is the only one of the 5 primary tastes that has not produced any significant results in relation to exercise and PA in the literature despite being tested in 5 studies (12). Although bitter taste was included in our protocol with all 3 sensory taste tests, both as a half-concentrated and fully-concentrated solution, it offered no significant results. Bitter is a taste, which was primarily used to detect poisonous food up until recent centuries (33). We sought to see whether we could generate new data regarding the impact of exercise on bitterness, but none was obtained. As of now, it is safe to assume that exercise and PA might not have any impact on the bitter taste.
Strength and Limitations
Our study is one of the first to evaluate the impact of exercise on individual taste perceptions in a younger active population with a ramping exercise high-intensity protocol. In other studies, most participants were asked to limit their PA levels the day before or the day of the testing and to not eat before testing, but their energy intake and their appetite were mostly not documented and/or standardized (16,17,28). Because these 2 could play a potential role in our perception of taste and are influenced by the moment of the testing and our energy status (27), it is thus crucial to control these parameters to draw more robust conclusions. Standardizing the pretesting conditions for every participant, especially regarding their appetite/hunger status, hydration status, and PA practice the day before testing was one of the main characteristics of this study.
This protocol included a 30-minute exercise session that produced significant results for sweet taste, but a longer duration may have produced different results for salty taste (higher electrolyte depletion). However, athletes who did a 40-minute running session at a speed intensity 10% under their lactate threshold did not report any significant increase in their salt preference (25). In this project, 19 participants were tested, although typically successful protocols involve about 30 participants with prior sample size calculations. Future protocols should include proper sample size calculations based on the effect sizes observed in this study. This would bolster the strength of the findings, particularly for salty taste perceptions, where this protocol did not yield significant findings. Moreover, this study only included adolescent boys due to participants availability, and the differences in taste perceptions and exercise between men and women remain understudied. Sensitivity testing is crucial in taste perception research, but it was not feasible to use more solutions with increasing concentrations in our study due to time constraints and participant attention span. Thus, our study did not provide satisfactory results regarding sensitivity changes with exercise. Future studies should include accurate sensitivity testing with appropriate solution concentrations and longer periods of exercise.
Conclusions
To summarize, this article produced significant results regarding the impact of exercise on distinct taste perceptions in an active adolescent population. In this context, a 30-minute exercise session increased both appreciation scores and intensity scores for sweet tasting solutions. Following exercise, possible effects on salty taste intensity scores were also noted. Because younger populations have not been well-documented regarding this matter, this article provides new data to be compiled on the role of exercise on the chemosensory system and helps to expand the current literature, which is primarily focused on adults aged 18–65 years. Although the link between exercise and taste has yet to be fully explored, it would be interesting to investigate whether chronic practice of exercise can offer similar modulations in sweet taste appreciation and intensity, and if these changes could affect subsequent energy intake in a younger population.
Acknowledgments
A special thanks to David Ouellette, the kinesiologist and hockey coach who played a pivotal role in recruitment and the overall success of the testing protocol. Funding Statement: Gauthier holds a doctoral scholarship from the Fonds de recherche du Québec. Partial financial support was received from Mathieu, who holds a Canada Research Chair—tier 2 on physical activity and juvenile obesity that helped finance the project. Author Contributions: Gauthier (62.5%) was involved in the data collection and writing the introduction, the method, the results, the discussion, and the conclusions. Villeneuve (15%) contributed to data collection, creation of tables and diagrams, and proofreading of the article. Cournoyer (7.5%) was involved in data collection and proofreading of the article. Mathieu (15%) was the project director and involved in data collection and proofreading of the article and funding. Data Availability Statement: Data generated or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Note: This article is available as a preprint at the following DOI: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.10.02.22280612 (Gauthier, Villeneuve, Cournoyer & Mathieu, 2022).
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